Abstract: This study focuses upon the social organization of innovation. It makes use of insights from knowledge and information systems research, development sociology, management science and applied philosophy and seeks answers to the following questions: What do social actors, individuals and/or organizations, actually do to innovate their practices? How do they organize themselves? Can this be managed or facilitated, and if so, how? The research is exploratory rather than conclusion-oriented and synthesizes the results of over 50 case studies of agricultural innovation in 15 different countries, including the Netherlands. Its main results are a conceptualization of innovation as a social process and a participatory action-research methodology to enhance innovative performance. The methodology is based on soft systems thinking and offers a variety of 'windows' or analytical perspectives to help social actors analyze the way they are organized for innovation in an action-oriented fashion. The methodology has been field-tested in 15 areas in 7 different countries. The author proposes that agricultural innovation can be looked at as resulting from the interplay between social actors representing relevant social practices. Social practices relevant to agricultural innovation include farming, research, extension, education, agroindustrial processing, marketing, mass media communication, policy-making, product quality control and the development, production, certification and distribution of inputs. Innovation then is a diffuse, social process of both individual and collective inquiry into intentions, alternative solutions and enabling and constraining conditions which leads to new or modified problem definitions and practical choices of solutions. The organization and quality of these inquiries eventually determine innovative performance at a certain point in time. What social actors actually do to innovate their practices can be understood as networking: social actors in search of relevant ideas, knowledge, information and experiences, continuously build and manage relationships with others which, by some standard, they consider relevant to innovating their practices. As a result of networking, over time forms of social organization of innovation emerge. These reflect dynamics of their own and are not fully describable or explicable in terms of micro-events. The author proposes four such emergent forms to be relevant to students of complex innovation theatres: Convergences emerge when social actors narrow down the scope of their arguments and the range of issues and alternative scenarios they consider relevant to innovating their practices. Resource coalitions emerge when social actors decide to pool their resources in a joint performance. Communication networks emerge as a direct consequence of social actors' decisions to create joint learning opportunities and to produce and exchange information among themselves. Over time, where the above forms coincide, a pattern of more or less durable relationships between a limited set of social actors, an innovation configuration, may emerge. In such a configuration strategic consensus, a clear definition of tasks and responsibilities and a rational allocation of resources among social actors is possible. It also appears that each of these forms, but particularly the last one, may demonstrate inertia when faced with rapidly changing demands and/or circumstances. As a result, innovative performance may drop. To enable social actors to assess their current way of organizing for innovation, a participatory action-research methodology is proposed: RAAKS, Rapid or Relaxed Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems. Its design is based upon 'soft knowledge systems thinking', combining the philosophy and guiding principles of soft systems methodology with analytical instruments from knowledge systems research. Through active participation of relevant social actors, RAAKS aims at a threefold objective: to raise awareness and understanding, to probe new alliances and to formulate proposals for action. It guides participants through an accumulative, interactive learning process leading from problem appraisal, via a joint inquiry towards the definition of potentially useful actions and/or interventions. In recognition of the appreciative character of innovation and its social organization, RAAKS offers a choice of perspectives or 'windows' to help stakeholders recognize, organize and debate relevant ideas and events. The conceptual approach mentioned above supports the integration of the findings into a more comprehensive understanding of the social organization of innovation in each particular case. RAAKS has been field-tested over a dozen times in the Netherlands and in six countries in Central America. These experiences confirmed its relevance and applicability as a methodology, as well as its adaptability to particular demands and circumstances. RAAKS proved most useful in situations where, often ill-defined, feelings of unease persist among relevant stakeholders about the course innovation takes or its pace. It has proved useful in training (future) extension and research managers, and helping them to understand the context in which they operate. RAAKS also demonstrated its usefulness to those organizations or individuals who sell or provide 'knowledge/information intensive' products or services, such as research, extension and advisory services. It provides them with an instrument to appreciate the dynamic social context in which their products or services have to be marketed and are to prove themselves. Finally, due to its participatory character and soft systems design, RAAKS seems a promising instrument to help social actors organize themselves to deal with complex societal problems, which require higher levels of effective cooperation among stakeholders, such as natural resource management, regional development, stopping environmental degradation or waste disposal. Several experiences with RAAKS outside agriculture illustrate that its relevance to facilitating complex innovation processes is not limited to agricultural development as such. As a general conclusion, the study points at the need to amplify research on knowledge management. To facilitate knowing between agencies and organizations, interorganizational communication, whether direct or indirect, joint learning, sense making and resource pooling would have to become objects of study and eventually of (knowledge) management. Also, networking would have to be studied, its adequacy, effectiveness and efficiency in specific situations assessed and improvements designed and evaluated. The author argues that the challenge for management sciences with respect to social organization of innovation is to achieve a balance between direction and control on the one hand, and the creation and maintenance of space for serendipitous and epiphenomenal improvements on the other. In addition, he proposes RAAKS may contribute not only to facilitating innovative social practice directly, but to scientific inquiry as well. For such a purpose, its potential and limitations do need to be further evaluated. In general, he suggests, soft (knowledge) systems thinking receives far less attention from the research community than it deserves.

Abstract: An interactive learning system is disclosed that includes a note-making facility, a mentor facility, and an editor facility as its major subsystems. The note-making facility allows the user to create notes while scanning through an electronic text file that is accessible from a suitable memory space. The mentor facility provides content-specific information in response to the selection of certain passages or quotations from the text file by the user. The editor facility provides generalized learning strategies and recommendations useful in the analysis of text and the preparation of a written report. The information provided by the editor facility is generalized, and hence is not specific to the current text file; in contrast, the mentor facility is content-specific, and furnishes the user with information that is specifically related to the text under review.

Abstract: The rapid proliferation of computer technology is dramatically improving geographic instruction However, as hardware and software technologies related to computer networks, environmental modelling, animation, multimedia and interactive learning become more available, educators must familiarise themselves with computer networks, software resources and digital data products Technical proficiency is often critically linked to successful implementation, therefore we demonstrate how instructors can easily identify and access Internet resources using Mosaic software We specifically report on using software and digital data products in conservation of the environment, environmental remote sensing, and geomorphology courses These diverse and informative materials can be used in a wide variety of pedagogical tasks

Abstract: Interactive learning collaboration the project the structure assessment and evaluation planned investigations

Abstract: The present study compared the potency of a why-questioning strategy called elaborative interrogation to self-selected strategies and repetition when students studied familiar and unfamiliar materials independently or in an interactive study context. Introductory psychology students (N=120) were randomly assigned to one of three strategy conditions (elaborative interrogation, self study, or repetition) and one of two study contexts (dyad or individual). Dyad members were told to work together to learn the 60 facts about animals. Students in the elaborative interrogation (EI) conditions were instructed to answer ‘why’ questions about each fact. Students in the repetition condition rehearsed each fact. In the self-study condition, students used any strategy(ies) that they thought would help them to remember the information. Both the EI and self study students outperformed repetition for facts about familiar animals. There were no significant differences between EI and self study. A greater number of repetition based strategies were generated when studying unfamiliar materials. In contrast, more higher order strategies were generated when studying familiar materials. Most important, the findings clearly support the effectiveness of interactive learning.

Abstract: The present contribution focuses on an interactive learning environment for the delivery of distance education learning materials. The use of such an interactive learning environment is foreseen in a distance education context in which students explore and study (part) of the learning materials by means of a personal computer. Research with interactive learning environments is transposed to the development of a course delivery environment, called ILCE, that also supports the development of a course model and learning materials. A learning environment as used in the present study allows students to access the course materials in a more flexible way. The printed self-study materials often do not correspond with the specific needs of a student, are only weakly related to his or her prior knowledge, or do not take account of differences in learning style. Although the printed course materials include text-embedded support devices (e.g., examples, exercises, illustrations), it is questioned whether the available devices provide enough support for each individual student. Therefore, it is argued that an interactive learning environment — in which a student is actively engaged in selecting learning materials (basic content and embedded support devices) — may provide a valuable tool in order to meet the individual needs of the student. Prototypes of an interactive learning environment were tested in two experimental settings. It appeared that all students were actively engaged in selecting the required support devices. However, the results showed that students with a high prior knowledge state manifested a higher amount of interactive use of support devices than their peers with a low prior knowledge state. The latter was especially found for support devices that either reinforce the acquisition process or provide a tool to test one’s mastery level.

Abstract: DOCUMENT RESUME

Abstract: A computer, responsive to user input, controls the presentation of an audio-visual work to a user. Through the selection of several interactive learning options, support and reinforcement of the learning process is provided. In particular, the computer interacts with the user to challenge the user's understanding of the audio-visual work. In connection with the presentation of foreign language works, the user interacts with the computer in role playing, transcription, translation, fill-in-the-blanks and speech repetition activities designed to teach the user to speak the foreign language. Furthermore, as the audio-visual work is presented, a computer generated transcription or translation is displayed for user contemplation, and the user may interact with the computer by requesting the display of grammatical, cultural and geographic notes the further assist in the learning process.

Abstract: How can students be helped to make personal meaning of their nursing knowledge? The author describes one strategy, that of creating a collage, that promoted interactive learning and the making of meaning.

Abstract: The paper identifies recent trends in instructional research which point to changing viewpoints on how to develop children's thinking skills. Three current projects at Queen's University Belfast, consistent with these viewpoints, are described. The ACTS project (Activating Children's Thinking) is a wide ranging initiative to promote the development of thinking skills in Northern Ireland classrooms. The second project, SMILES (Simulated Methods for Interactive Learning of Environmental Systems), is analysing children's understanding of environmental concepts within a systems framework, with a focus on computer-aided instruction. The final project on mathematics education is the result of a long-standing research programme and has been recently associated with the production of a set of commercially available textbooks called Oxford Mathematics.

Abstract: This paper is about GLASS, a distributed multimedia system that is currently under development. The multimedia department of the IBM European Networking Center in Heidelberg, Germany, participates in the project along with other industrial and university partners. GLASS is an acronym for Globally Accessible Services, expressing the system's wide range of possible applications. Interactive TV scenarios can be presented as well as multimedia applications for interactive learning and games for entertainment. Clients for standard telecommunications services like FAX and E-mail can be included as well as presentation components providing access to hypertext-oriented internet services like WWW. The system's components can be highly distributed using networks with TCP/IP. An application is driven by MHEG-encoded presentations that allow for the definition of sophisticated presentations. The system comprises multiple server and client components. All components can be operated on a mix of different platforms. Although running on different operating systems, all clients have the same look and feel which is defined completely by the MHEG presentation.

Abstract: This article describes a course on feminist social work practice that was designed to develop, model, and create interventions and strate gies that are meaningful to women's experience and reality. Nontra ditional styles of teaching and learning emerged using a team ap proach. Shared knowledge was a hallmark of the class as the teachers and students sought to challenge the concept of hierarchy and to create a climate for cooperative and interactive learning.

Abstract: In this article the effectivity of prototypes of interactive learning environments (ILE) is investigated. These computer-based environments are used for independent learning. In the learning materials, represented in the prototypes, a clear distinction is made between the basic content and embedded support devices (ESDs) that are expected to support learning. The prototypes differ in relation to the extent they support interactivity in manipulating the ESDs and the degree of discernability of the ESDs. In a large empirical research set-up ILE are compared with learning environments that are based on printed learning materials and a control situation with face-to-face lectures. The results indicate the effectivity of the ILE, when taking into account the significant impact of individual differences between students on study outcome. The interaction results show that discernability of ESDs is favourable for some students. For other students, however, discernability affects the learning outcome in a negative way.

Abstract: As video information proliferates, managing video sources becomes increasingly important. Indices must be constructed to allow any future retrieval. We distinguish two categories of indexing: (i) those that are general-purpose and do not make use of domain-specific knowledge, and (ii) those that are application-dependent. In this paper, we present our work in both categories within the VideoBook project. We discuss how to structure video data into shots (physical parts) and clusters (semantic parts). A video partitioning algorithm is described. Its effectiveness and efficiency lies in the use of both statistical and spatial information in the images without, however, having to examine the entire images. To improve the querying efficiency, we propose to investigate in two directions: deriving higher-level indices through classification and providing a method that finds targets of interest through interactive learning. The first technique takes advantage of domain knowledge of underlying applications. The second technique accounts for quantification effect and noise in images and accommodates “learning from negative examples”, resulting into quite good discriminating power. Experimental results are given to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach.

Abstract: An Interactive Learning and Course development Environment (ILCE) is presented, which aims to enhance the flexibilization of a course in terms of tailoring it to the needs and requirements of individual students. The heart of ILCE forms a repository of units of learning material. The repository consists of a domain model, a semantic network of the content of a subject domain which is covered by the learning material. This model serves as an abstract representation of the units of learning material. The construction of a course is defined as the selection of a subset of the domain model. Attributes are used to express student characteristics and are linked to the domain model as variables. By adding if/then rules to the domain model, the consistency and the completeness of a selection is preserved. The building environment is used by a course team to fill a repository by designing, producing and revising units of learning material in accordance with the proposed knowledge representation scheme. The design approach a course team has to adopt focuses on building a course model next to the design of the learning material. This design approach is illustrated with examples taken from the ILCE prototype.

Abstract: We describe a tool which was developed as a Masters project to help students learn the concepts of reasoning with uncertainty. While the initial implementation has focused on Dempster-Shafer theory, the tool is designed so that it can be expanded to other models of uncertain reasoning. The tool uses interactive graphical representations, together with animation and color, to convey the principles of reasoning with uncertainty. It runs on the Unix platform under the X-window system and uses the SUIT toolkit [1].

Abstract: PhotoCD is a novel electronic format which uses digital technology to scan colour or monochrome photographs, store them on compact discs, and then display them as highquality images on a TV or on a monitor screen. A technical description of this technology can be found in Beisner (1993), Bowers (1994) and Chen (1993). Supporting software is available to access and manipulate the images for use in interactive learning. DOI: 10.1080/0968776950030110

Abstract: SUMMARY This paper describes the development of a hypermedia environment for language learning that has evolved from a joint project between the Language Centre and the Interactive Learning Centre at the University of Southampton. The paper examines the design process which has evolved during the adaptation of several multimedia resources to a hypermedia presentation and the supporting infrastructure that is provided for the student. The paper also poses some questions for the research agenda which must underpin the process of creating and integrating resource‐based materials for a contemporary education in modern languages.

Abstract: We describe a computer application to help students learn statistical reasoning with uncertainty. The challenge was to make a difficult and complex topic easier and fun to learn. We advocate a commonsense approach that focuses on the key concepts, giving the students a sense of the important issues and a platform from which to evaluate and compare various models. In this paper we describe our design and implementation of a learning tool that is based on such an approach. The tool uses graphics, color, and animation. While the initial implementation focuses on the Dempster-Shafer model, the tool design is a framework which can incorporate other models. We also discuss how this learning tool may be used to effectively introduce Dempster-Shafer theory to students in the classroom.

Abstract: Since 1991 we have been developing a digital library (DL) in computer science and applying if for CS education. NSF has founded two large projects focusing in this area, as well as several related efforts. "A User-Centered Database for the Computer Science Literature" ran from 1991 through early 1995, benefited from strong support from ACM, and led to the Envision system [8, 9, 10]. "Interactive Learning With a Digital Library in Computer Science" [6, 7] runs from 1993 through early 1997, is supported by ACM as well as other publishers like IEEE-CS, includes efforts at Norfolk State University (NSU), and benefits from extensive hypermedia system support. By late April 1995, thirteen courses were supported by this El (NSF Education Infrastructure) project and over forty thousand accesses a week were logged by our server.

Abstract: This paper describes the "Sickle Cell Counselor" (SCC), a goal based scenario on permanent display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. SCC is an exploratory hypermedia simulation program which provides users with a basic understanding of Sickle Cell Anemia. The user of the program plays the role of a genetic counselor, and, while playing this role, can do laboratory tests, calculate risks, ask experts for information, and advise clients about the results. The paper begins with a brief description of the SCC which emphasizes the design features most relevant to the patterns of interaction that emerged. include the design of the task presented to the user, the organization of the database, and guidance given to the user by the system. Three evaluations of SCC which were conducted with museum users in order to better understand how they interacted with the program, are also presented. These studies examined patterns of usage, the cognitive gain of the program, and the effects the counseling task had on learning. Discussions of how particular features of the program affected the interactions of the users and their implications for the design of computer-based learning environments conclude the paper. (Contains 17 references.) (JLB) *********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************** The effects of task, database, and guidance on interaction in a Goal-Based Scenariot Benjamin Bell The Institute for the Learning Sciences Northwestern University Evanston, IL 60201 bell@ ils.nwu.edu Introduction U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 01fice of Educahonai Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERICI 0 This document has been reproduced as received from the person or orgaruzatton ongmatIng .t O Mmor changes have been made to improve reproduction quell!). Points of new opinions stated in this documem do not necessarily represent ("coal OERI pos.t.on or policy Computer-based learning environments provide an opportunity to situate instruction within engaging and authentic contexts. There are a number of advantages to this approach: such contexts can support failure-driven learning (Schank, 1982); they can display the range of phenomena a student might encounter later (Schank, 1991); skills and knowledge presented incontext are more eaF;.ly learned (Brown, et al., 1989); their utility is readily conveyed by the context (Bransford, et al., 1990). Results from studies of anchored instruction, for example, suggest the benefits provided by the context with regard to learning how and when to apply new knowledge, in addition to acquiring the new knowledge itself (e.g., CTGV, 1992; Goldman, Vye, Williams, & Rewey, 1992). One specialization of anchored instruction introduces the requirement that the student become engaged in a role-playing situation, actively pursuing task objectives on his or her own behalf, as an agent in the simulated environment. This is the approach adopted by Goal-Based Scenarios (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, in press). Sickle Cell Counselor is a Goal-Based Scenario (GBS) we designed, which is now on permanent display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. Using this hypermedia simulation program, visitors learn about Sickle Cell si) Disease by helping couples seeking advice about the potential risks of Sickle Cell. 1) t Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA, April, 1994. "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY ()C -1Benjamin L. Bell TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." , 7nteraction in a Goal-Based Scenario B. Bell In this paper, I briefly describe Sickle Cell Counselor, emphasizing the design features most relevant to the patterns of interaction which emerged. I then summarize three evaluations of SCC we conducted in order to better understand how users interact with the program, and discuss how particular features of the program affected those interactions. I conclude by examining how these result might be generalizable to a broader class of interactive learning environments. The Design of Sickle Cell Counselor A brief description of Sickle Cell Counselor SICKLE CELL COUNSELOR (Bell, Bareiss, & Beckwith, in press) is an exploratory hypermedia system which provides users with a basic understanding of Sickle Cell Disease. The user of the program plays the role of a genetic counselor, assisting clients who have expressed an urgent desire to learn more about Sickle Cell. The four main activities a user can do while playing this role are doing lab tests, calculating risks, asking experts for information, and advising the clients about the results. The program provides access to a simulated blood lab, giving the user a chance to draw blood samples from each client, view them under the microscope, and perform lab tests in order to determine the clients' hemoglobin genotypes. To calculate the clients' risks the user can access a Punnett Square, a simple visualization tool which also acts as a "genetic spreadsheet". To make domain knowledge available to the user, an experts screen is available which provides access to a physician, a geneticist, a lab teLhnician, and a guide. Finally, the user can advise the clients by selecting one of three types of advice from a menu. The clients' reaction depends on what the user has explored, and on the type of advice the user gives, e.g., "It's too risky for you to have kids," or "You have enough information do as you think is best."

Abstract: A test-bed application (the Graphic Story Writer) was created to explore ideas in the design of user interfaces for individual and shared interactive learning environments. Two central issues motivated and guided this work. First, can highly interactive learning environments be created for domains with abstract representations? And second, how can users of a shared synchronous learning environment be encouraged to communicate in productive ways? In order to explore and test these issues, we developed an interactive learning environment (the GSW) for story construction designed to address the difficulties young users face in collaborative composition. A usability study determined that users in our target age group were capable of working with the system, and identified areas of the interface that needed improvement. A study comparing oral stories with stories constructed with the GSW found that GSW stories were more likely to have a complete conflict/resolution structure. A preliminary study of collaborative use of the GSW confirmed previous reports of the difficulty of encouraging users of synchronous systems to collaborate. A second, larger study of verbal interaction found that the level of communication about the storytelling task itself rose significantly when positive interdependences were created between users of the system.

Abstract: The concept of a low-cost talking book is under development by the authors who are motivated by their concern for current reading and teaching methods both with and without the aid of the personal computer. While many children are electronic game and television literate, and interactive learning systems, particularly multimedia ones, can be very effective, there are still barriers to the general acceptability of computer-based reading aids. These barriers are largely to do with: high cost, the user-interface, and the lack of personal contact and sharing, all of which are currently better handled with paper-based documents. For example books are cheap, and there is a close one-to-one contact with the teacher during reading practice. The talking book is designed to provide the feedback that would occur between teacher and child during normal reading and are invoked by the child selecting letter, words, sentences and pictures with a stylus. Details of the letter, word, and sentence selection algorithms are given together with digital speech algorithms that enable the speech to be intelligible and acceptable.