Abstract: Today, e-learning is a common delivery media for education and training within many organizations. Yet, while both the supply and demand for e-learning opportunities has risen in recent years, many professionals are beginning to question whether e-learn-ers are prepared to be successful in an online learning environment (e.g., Gug-lielmino & Guglielmino, 2003; Watkins & Corry, 2005). After all, a learner's demonstrated success in a conventional education and training classroom may not be an adequate predictor of success in an e-learning classroom. One way of gauging a potential online learner's readiness is through self-assessment. As a first step in defining an instrument that measures an e-learner's readiness, with the cooperation of volunteer participants from the U.S. Coast Guard, this study looked into the validity and internal consistency of items within a self-assessment of e-learning readiness that is under development, and provided data for the continuing development and revision of the instrument. Having demonstrated evidence of internal consistency and construct validity, the self-assessment now provides a tool for continuing research into the prediction of e-learning performance. Funding for this study was provided by the International Society for Performance Improvement.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the construct of self-efficacy in the context of online learning environments. Self-efficacy is defined as “beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Traditionally, the four main sources of self-efficacy development are enactive master experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective state (Bandura, 1997). In this paper, self-efficacy is introduced in general. Research related to academic self-efficacy and self-efficacy in online learning environments is reviewed. The study of self-efficacy in online learning environments is new relative to the construct of self-efficacy. Research on self-efficacy and the use of computers in instructional situations has been included to broaden the literature base. The development of self-efficacy beliefs in online environments is highlighted as well as self-efficacy assessment issues. Possible areas of self-efficacy research in online environments are suggested, including pedagogical agents, persuasive feedback, and self-efficacy assessment.

Abstract: Interactive digital media, or video games, are a powerful new medium. They offer immersive experiences in which players solve problems. Players learn more than just facts—ways of seeing and understanding problems so that they “become” different kinds of people. “Serious games” coming from business strategy, advergaming, and entertainment gaming embody these features and point to a future paradigm for eLearning. Building on interviews with leading designers of serious games, this article presents case studies of three organizations building serious games, coming from different perspectives but arriving at similar conclusions. This article argues that such games challenge us to rethink the role of information, tools, and aesthetics in a digital age.

Abstract: Although educators, policy-makers, business leaders, and the general public have become increasingly concerned about the “basic skills” crisis in American schools, research-based solutions have existed for over two decades in the form of measurably superior teaching methodologies: Precision Teaching and Direct Instruction. In federally validated research, each of these instructional technologies has been shown to produce far greater achievement and self-esteem among students than more traditional teaching practices, with favorable cost-benefit ratios when implemented in schools. These results have been obtained despite adverse socio-economic influences on students so often blamed for failure in the classroom. These methods have not been widely adopted, partly due to political and philosophical resistance to measurably superior instructional technology among educators. This article provides overviews of Precision Teaching and Direct Instruction, discusses their origins and research backgrounds, cites effectiveness data, and describes how they can complement one another when used together. It provides sufficient references to the literature and pointers to existing programs to enable interested readers to learn more about each of these measurably superior educational solutions.

Abstract: The andragogical model has stood for many years as a central model of adult learning. The purpose of this article is to offer a fresh look at certain aspects of andragogy that are important for performance improvement professionals as well as other adult educators. More specifically, the objectives are to clarify the current state of the andragogical principles, address certain key issues in using andragogy in practice, and offer a clearer framework for adapting andragogy to different practice conditions. An expanded model, Andragogy in Practice, is offered that more explicitly accounts for factors that must be considered in shaping andragogy to fit the learning situation. An analysis framework called andragogical learner analysis is also offered to utilize the andragogy model in practice during needs assessment and curriculum development.

Abstract: Lifelong learning is intentional learning that people engage in throughout their lives for personal and professional fulfillment and to improve the quality of their lives. In today's climate of continual change and innovation, lifelong learning is a critical educational goal. In order to prepare people for lifelong learning, educational opportunities must develop their capacity for self-direction, metacognitive awareness, and disposition toward lifelong learning. Several instructional features facilitate the development of metacognitive and self-directed learning skills, and the disposition to lifelong learning: (1) student autonomy, responsibility, and intentionality; (2) intrinsically motivating learning activities; (3) enculturation; (4) discourse and collaboration among learners; and (5) reflection. This article describes and presents examples of how three teaching methodologies—problem-based learning, intentional learning environments, and cognitive apprenticeship—employ these instructional features.

Abstract: This study examined how instructional design (ID) experts used their prior knowledge and previous experiences to solve an ill-structured instructional design problem. Seven experienced designers used a think-aloud procedure to articulate their problem-solving processes while reading a case narrative. Results, presented in the form of four assertions, showed that experts (1) narrowed the problem space by identifying key design challenges, (2) used an amalgam of knowledge and experience to interpret the problem situation, (3) incorporated a mental model of the ID process in their problem analyses, and (4) came to similar conclusions about how to respond to the situation, despite differences in their initial conceptualizations. Implications for educating novice instructional designers are discussed.

Abstract: This paper discusses an emerging development methodology, Performance Support Engineering, that can be used to design and build performance support systems. It introduces a new model called the Organizational Performance/Learning Cycle that describes the dynamics of the organizational learning process and provides a framework for thinking about the technologies (Ariel 1994) and methodologies that enable that process. The author argues that previous definitions of EPSS were too limited and restricted in their scope and expands on these earlier definitions to take into account this new model of organizational learning. The new dofinition clparly distinguishes EPSS from traditional systems development, which focuses on data, not on knowledge, and from expert systems development, which focuses on knowledge rather than on enabling performance. This new view of EPSS offers a clear opportunity for organizations to recognize the strategic importance of managing their knowledge assets. Most of the current methodologies in use by different functional groups are limited in their capability to enable this model and the expanded definition of EPSS. The author describes how the emerging Performance Support Engineering methodology overcomes those limitations.

Abstract: Work is becoming increasingly com-puter-mediated. Performance development is becoming increasingly difficult and expen-sive due to complexity, change, restructuring, and redefinition of who does work. In the coasumer market place, softw are is emerging with characteristics and behaviors; that actively support performance development while permitting learning. These performance-centered systems are the next step in the evolution of performance support. Performance Technologists must and will play an active part in both their advocacy and design. Ultimately, no consumer or large-scale software system should be considered accep table until day-one performance isgenerated for novice performers while still accommodating the requirements of expert performers.

Abstract: Training researchers and practitioners have typically focused their attention on one type of transfer, the transfer of tasks that require trainees to learn and apply a prescribed standard procedure. Further, researchers and practitioners have examined this type of transfer in situations where supervisors hold trainees accountable for applying the trained knowledge and skill, Performance professionals have developed theoretical frameworks, training principles, and training guidelines to improve transfer based on this conception of transfer. In contrast, this paper presents a multidimensional perspective to training transfer. One dimension concerns task adaptability-a continuum from relatively closed tasks, where task steps are highly prescribed, to relatively open tasks, where the task steps can be adapted to varying circumstances of the job. The other dimension concerns worker autonomy-a continuum from heavily supervised to highly independent work. Based on this expanded perspective of transfer, for each combination of variable, we offer principles for effective transfer as well as specific problems which must be solved to achieve the best results. We also provide suggestions for evaluating training success and derive research propositions that deserve attention.

Abstract: There can be few tasks so daunting as to describe action learning in an abbreviated and concentrated way. Those who have experienced action learning know the wide variety of forms it can take. There can be vast differences of interpretation and application. The lack of a tightly defined framework can be a distraction, especially to those accustomed to curriculum design. On the other hand, the flexibility of action learning in promoting learning and elevating organizational performance can be highly attractive. This article covers action learning in a contextual way, first, by relating it to two societal trends. Three examples are then provided that leave the reader free to interpret their significance and how they differ from traditional approaches to problem resolution. The remainder of the article then outlines action learning principles. The goal is an integrated view of action learning in application, including some contrasting beliefs.

Abstract: The People Capability Maturity Model® (People CMM®) advocates a staged approach to organizational change. Developed by the Carnegie Mellon University Software Engineering Institute, this model seeks to bring discipline to the people side of management by promoting a structured, repeatable, and predictable approach for improving an organization's workforce-related processes. A system of best practice processes, and associated practices, holds potential for changing an organization's culture from that of an “ad-hoc”racy to one pursuing workforce excellence. This article introduces Human Performance Technology professionals to the model, its approach, and its potential to improve workforce performance.

Abstract: Currently available Lean tools such as Lean Assessments, Value Stream Mapping, and Process Flow Charting focus on system requirements and overlook human behavior. A need is felt for a tool that allows one to baseline personnel, determine personnel requirements and align system requirements with personnel requirements. Our exploratory model - The Personnel Behavior Based Lean Model (PBBL), attempts to ingrain the human perspective into Lean design. The model is both a result of our research into the workings of the human element in Lean production, as well as a tool for research. The model can baseline the current state of personnel and develop a strategy for behavioral change to aid Lean implementation efforts. Accumulation of historic data using the model can help to develop a human capability index in the lines of process capability index. The paper describes the development of the model and subsequent validation of the model through a case study. The case study also serves as a stepping-stone for future work and research suggested at the end of the paper.

Abstract: This study investigated the influence of three variables (motivation to transfer, action planning as an intervention designed to promote transfer, and perception of manager support) on the transfer of skills taught in three interpersonal skills courses in a major corporation. The research was based on a reconceptualization of transfer as a process rather than an event or “product.” Transfer was assessed in terms of initiation of transfer, frequency of transfer, and overall transfer. Perception of manager support for the utilization of the skills exerted considerably more influence on the transfer process than did motivation. The influence of the action planning intervention was ambiguous. The findings suggest that designers and evaluators must take such influences—especially manager support-into account throughout the design, development, implementation and evaluation phases of training programs.

Abstract: Surveys have consistently shown that training evaluation is not as widely utilized as many think it should be. This study sought to determine the extent to which technical training, which is often thought to be easier to evaluate but has not been studied, utilizes accepted evaluation techniques. A survey was sent to a random sample of 334 members of the ASTD Technical and Skills Training Professional Practice Area, resulting in a usable response rate of 35%. Data were gathered on the types and methods of evaluation used, reasons for not evaluating, organizational training practices, and selected demographic information. The results showed that technical training evaluation practices were essentially the same as those reported for training in general. Furthermore, an examination of historical benchmarks showed that evaluation practices have not changed much in the last forty years. These findings suggest the need for a new research agenda on organizational training decision-making processes.

Abstract: In a climate of continual change and innovation, lifelong learning is a critical professional development objective which has a direct impact on organizations' effectiveness and ability to compete and innovate. To help learners continually upgrade their skills and knowledge so they can effectively address emerging organizational and professional needs and opportunities, educators must prepare learners for their professions using teaching methodologies that develop learners' capacity for and disposition toward lifelong learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) is one such method. PBL uses professional problems of practice as a starting point, stimulus, and focus for student activity, and one of PBL's stated educational outcomes is students' use of lifelong learning skills. This study examined the changes in students' use of lifelong learning skills while participating in a PBL project. Twenty-six undergraduate university computer science students completed a 15-week C++ programming course. Using guided reflective journal responses as process data, students were observed to increase their application of lifelong learning skills during their PBL experience. Design and research recommendations are shared.

Abstract: An important dimension of training effectiveness relates to how well skills learned during training are transferred to the workplace. The current study examines the effects of several individual characteristics (Self-efficacy, Motivation to Transfer, Training Reactions, Goals for Transfer and Commitment to Transfer Goal) and Situational Constraints on perceived Transfer Success. LISREL VII (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989) was used to determine the fit of a mediated effects model of how the variables would affect transfer success. Self-efficacy and Motivation to Transfer were found to be significantly related to transfer intentions (Goal for Transfer and Commitment to Transfer Goal) while Goal for Transfer and Commmitment to Transfer Goal were positively related to Transfer Success. The implications of these results for maximizing the transfer of training are discussed.

Abstract: The ability to develop new problem descriptions to enable new solutions has been related to the creative capability by many who have examined creative processes. This has been called problem re-structuring in architectural design and has been documented using models and methods of human information processing. In the realm of engineering, a similar phenomenon exists. The solution engineers have adopted to deal with uncertainties of problem redefinition involves the use of standards. Problems approached in this manner are routine problems. Non-routine problems tend to produce signature designs while routine ones lead to anonymous designs. Looking at human creativity through problem restructuring, so far, has led to interesting insights. If pursued further, this approach is likely to offer more research results and questions that can benefit our understanding of the role of creativity in professional practice and related decision-making.

Abstract: Proponents of the learning organization acknowledge that leaders and managers must assume roles as coaches in organizations that aspire to become learning organizations. The concept of the manager as coach is becoming increasingly popular as a way to facilitate learning and improve employee performance. Yet, despite the research that has been done on coaching, studies generally focus on characteristics of good coaches, requisite coaching skills, and employees' perceptions of the improvement in managers' coaching skills following such training programs. This article describes some of the findings from a larger qualitative critical incident study. Specifically, the triggers for coaching and the outcomes of coaching interventions for the individual employee, manager, and organization are examined and reported here. This study identifies gaps and discrepancies, political, and developmental issues as the primary triggers for coaching. Additionally, this study suggests that managers' commitment to coaching has the potential to impact performance at the individual employee, manager, and organizational level.

Abstract: This article introduces a model of dynamic electronic performance support systems. Dynamic support systems are characterized by the ability to change with experience, the ability to be updated and adjusted by the performer, and by the ability to augment other supports found in the performers' community. Dynamic systems are contrasted with the static nature of conventional models of performance support systems. This article reviews the attributes of current performance support systems, describes lessons learned from a project that explored a dynamic model of learning and support, and presents design principles for dynamic performance support.

Abstract: Teams are an essential part of successful performance in learning and work environments. Analysis-constructed shared mental model (ACSMM) methodology is a set of techniques where individual mental models are elicited and sharedness is determined not by the individuals who provided their mental models but by an analytical procedure. This method quickly and easily captures mental models with minimal intervention in a team's activities. ACSMM methodology can be provided as feedback to facilitate team performance. This methodology was designed as a qualitative analysis technique for using individually constructed mental model (ICMM) data in the form of concept maps from each team member, analyzing the ICMM components, and constructing a representation of the team's shared mental model using these data. ACSMMs are used to compare team-shared understanding development over time.

Abstract: People may be an organization's most important resource but their performance is absolutely critical to the organization's survival and ultimate growth. What produces human performance? What are the critical components? This manuscript develops the basic thinking about what causes a human to perform and then presents evidence for the addition of one new component—self-efficacy. Next, the manuscript develops a fundamental understanding of self-efficacy and how it fits into human performance.

Abstract: Instructional design, as it is traditionally conceptualized, is being challenged on several fronts, through surveys of design practice, cross-disciplinary studies of design practice, and practical criticism focusing on issues of design models' flexibility and efficiency. Collectively these challenges raise questions about the viability of the instructional design enterprise. This paper reviews these challenges and attempts to respond by offering alternative approaches to instructional design.

Abstract: The effects of fluency training on the acquisition and retention of a composite skill were compared with those of training to accuracy only. Participants were 30 college students, and the task was a stimulus equivalence task, similar to the one used by Binder (1995) in earlier assessments. Participants learned associations between Hebrew symbols and nonsense syllables and between nonsense syllables and Arabic numerals. Immediately after training and every 2 or 4 weeks for 16 weeks, they were tested on a composite task that required both associations. Retention of the original component associations was also assessed after 4 months. With respect to the composite skill, fluency training resulted in: a) higher response rates immediately after training and across the 16 weeks; b) better accuracy 4 and 16 weeks after training; and c) less deterioration of accuracy after 16 weeks. Effects on the component skills were similar. The results document that for skilled adult learners, fluency training can aid the acquisition of a higher level skill and increase the retention of accuracy for both the component and composite skills.

Abstract: The concept of “manager as coach” is increasingly popular in the management literature as a mechanism for improving employee involvement and performance. This paper summarizes a study to evaluate the effectiveness of a “coaching skills” program for sales managers. The program began with a five–day coaching skills course and was followed by on–the–job activities that called for application of the coaching skills covered in the course. The study used telephone interviews with managers' subordinates to collect data regarding managers' coaching effectiveness prior to the program. Follow–up interviews were conducted three months later. The interviews focused on the eight coaching behaviors identified by Schelling (1991). Quantitative analyses showed statistically significant increases on the follow–up ratings on five of the eight coaching behaviors. Further analysis revealed that subordinates who had not worked with their supervisors long tended to give lower ratings. Additionally, those managers with fewer subordinates often received higher scores on the eight coaching behaviors.

Abstract: Several cognitive psychologists have written about the importance of placing instruction within “authentic” contexts that mirror real-life situations. They argue that knowledge learned in academic settings does not necessarily transfer to non-academic settings. Whether preparing performance technologists or instructional designers, educators must strive to create meaningful problem-solving contexts that enable students to define, and subsequently solve, real-world problems. In an attempt to address this issue we have modified the way we teach instructional design. This paper discusses a cognitive apprenticeship approach to teaching design, which incorporates elements of modeling, coaching, reflection, articulation, and exploration. We describe how these features are embedded within three phases (orientation, situated training/learning, and exploration) of an introductory instructional design course designed to move our novice designers along a continuum of expertise as they develop and refine their own professional design skills. Although the apprenticeship model described here specifically addresses concerns within the context of preparing instructional designers, we believe that this model can be adapted to address similar issues in the education of performance technologists.

Abstract: Many theorists and practitioners are calling for more authentically based teaching approaches in the preparation of instructional designers and performance technologists to address the complexity of the field's practice. Although many innovative methods have been incorporated into the study of instructional design and development and human performance technology, including case studies and applied experiences with collaborative groups, among others, the majority of teaching approaches are limited to the time constraints and format of the traditional university classroom setting. This paper discusses an alternative teaching approach that incorporates action learning principles along with authentic project-based methods into the full-time study of instructional design. The paper reviews action learning principles and highlights the commonalties between these principles and the application of the practice and teaching of the instructional design process in an authentic manner. Finally, the implementation of action learning principles within a graduate program in instructional technology is described. Action learning principles may be applied to many content areas; however, the highly complementary nature of this specific methodology to the teaching and practice of instructional design may have the potential to improve greatly our preparation of professionals in the complex work environments characteristic of this and related disciplines. As a valuable component of performance technology skills, training in instructional design methods based on an action learning approach may have broad implications for both the preparation of instructional designers and performance technologists.

Abstract: While research has focused on the effects of diversity on individual and group level outcomes, there has been little inquiry concerning the organizational level. Cox (1994) states that the most frequently asked question by executives regarding workforce diversity involves how it affects the performance of organizations. In order to manage the growing diversity of the workforce, organizations need to implement systems and practices so that the potential advantages of diversity are maximized and the potential disadvantages are minimized (Cox, 1994). While the goal of these programs is organizational success, from a human resource perspective they introduce unique challenges. In particular, these challenges relate to activities such as the socialization of culturally diverse employees. Therefore, in an effort to increase understanding of the effects of cultural diversity on organizational performance, this paper examines the moderating impact of socialization tactics on the relationship between cultural diversity and firm performance.