Background Microwave processing techniques have been extensively used in the food industry due to its significant reduction in cooking time and energy consumption. Microwave processing technologies such as microwave drying, heating and sterilizing play a significant role in food quality and safety control. However, few reviews have been published in recent years summarizing the latest developments in the application of microwave technology in the food industry. Scope and approach This review focuses on recent applications of microwave processing technologies including microwave drying, heating, and sterilizing in fruit (banana, apple, olive, sour cherries, pomegranate arils, blueberries, kiwifruit, aronia, strawberry, and grape tomato), vegetables (potato, bamboo shoot, purslane leaves, onion, green bean, pumpkin, eggplant, edamame, sea tangle, garlic, kale, red cabbage, tomato, cassava, lentils, chickpea, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, jalapeno peppers, and coriander foliage), and meat products (sardine fish, restructured silver carp slices, sea cucumber, beef semitendinosus muscle, bovine supraspinatus muscle, camel longissimus dorsi muscle, foal meat, bovine gluteus medium muscle, chicken steak, mature cows semimembranosus and semitendinosus muscles, kavurma (a ready-to-eat meat product), salmon, cod, drumettes, and beef slices), changes in product quality as affected with microwave processing are discussed in details, and future directions of research are presented. Key findings and conclusions Microwave drying has the advantages of low energy consumption and high efficiency as compared to conventional drying, while producing more porous structure of foods. Microwave drying usually combines with other conventional drying to enhance the quality of a food product. Compared with the traditional method, microwave heating or cooking can generally retain higher levels of bioactive components, antioxidant activity and attractive color of vegetables, while microwave cooking with water can cause a serious drop in nutrients due to leaching and thermal liability. Microwave sterilization has the capacity to completely inactivate microorganisms and effectively destroy enzyme activity, and less effect on antioxidant activity, texture and color of food products compared with conventional pasteurization.

Microwave processing techniques and their recent applications in the food industry

Microwave drying is based on a unique volumetric heating mode facilitated by electromagnetic radiation at 915 or 2,450 MHz. The responses of a lossy food product to dielectric heating result in rapid energy coupling into the moisture and lead to fast heating and drying. A significant reduction in drying time in microwave drying is often accompanied by an improvement in product quality, making it a promising food dehydration technology. The need for improvement in engineering design and process optimization for microwave drying has stimulated the development of computer simulation techniques to predict temperature and moisture history and distribution in the product to be dried. In this article, we present the basics of dielectric heating and drying, examine the heat and mass transfer models developed for the simulation of microwave drying processes, and discuss dielectric properties of selected food products as influenced by moisture, temperature, and porosity. In addition, we analyze nonuniform heating caused by the geometry and composition of the product, as well as by the nonuniform distribution of electromagnetic field in a microwave cavity, followed by a discussion on how to improve the microwave heating uniformity. We focus the discussion on heat and mass transfer models developed over the years to simulate microwave drying, including simplified ones, those based on diffusion theory, and coupled heat and mass transfer analysis with the Philip and de Vries theory, Luikov scheme, Whitaker method, and two-region model. In the end, the determination of the heat source term in the energy equation, numerical schemes used to solve the partial differential equations, and the model validation are also discussed.

Microwave Drying of Food and Agricultural Materials: Basics and Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

Drying is one of the widely used methods of grain, fruit, and vegetable preservation. The important aim of drying is to reduce the moisture content and thereby increase the lifetime of products by limiting enzymatic and oxidative degradation. In addition, by reducing the amount of water, drying reduces the crop losses, improves the quality of dried products, and facilitates its transportation, handling, and storage requirements. Drying is a process comprising simultaneous heat and mass transfer within the material, and between the surface of the material and the surrounding media. Many models have been used to describe the drying process for different agricultural products. These models are used to estimate drying time of several products under different drying conditions, and how to increase the drying process efficiency and also to generalize drying curves, for the design and operation of dryers. Several investigators have proposed numerous mathematical models for thin-layer drying of many agricultural products. This study gives a comprehensive review of more than 100 different semitheoretical and empirical thin-layer drying models used in agricultural products and evaluates the statistical criteria for the determination of appropriate model.

A comprehensive review of thin-layer drying models used in agricultural products.

Valorization of grape pomace: Drying behavior and ultrasound extraction of phenolics

Bamboo shoot forms a traditional delicacy in many countries. Being low in fat content and high in potassium, carbohydrate, dietary fibres, Vitamins and active materials, bamboo shoots are consumed in raw, canned, boiled, marinated, fermented, frozen, liquid and medicinal forms. Although the fresh bamboo shoots of species like Dendraocalamus giganteus are healthier and nutritionally rich, the young shoots, after fortification, can be consumed by processing into a wide range of food products with longer shelf-life and better organoleptic qualities. However, the consumption pattern of bamboo shoots in most of the countries is traditional, non-standardized, seasonal and region-specific with little value addition. Therefore, there exists a great opportunity, especially for the organized food processing sectors to take up the processing of bamboo shoot-based food products in an organized manner. The present article gives an insight into the global scenario of bamboo shoot-based food products and their consumption pattern, the quality attributes, and the opportunities for value addition along with future prospects in view of international food safety, security and nutrition.

Value addition to bamboo shoots: a review

Summary

The effect of microwave power on colour change kinetics of bamboo shoot slices was investigated during microwave drying. Colour changes were quantified by tri-stimulus Hunter L (whiteness/darkness), a (redness/greenness), and b (yellowness/blueness) system. These values were also used for calculation of total colour change (ΔE), chroma, hue angle, and browning index (BI). Microwave drying as expected changed colour parameters because of browning. The values of L and b decreased, while values of a and ΔE increased during drying. Mathematical modelling of colour change kinetics indicated that L, b, chroma and BI could be defined using a first-order kinetic model, while a, ΔE and hue angle could be defined using a zero-order kinetic model. Considering together colour deterioration and quality of dried bamboo shoot slices at higher power reveals the need of process standardisation for getting good quality product.

Kinetics of colour change of bamboo shoot slices during microwave drying

Effect of microwave power on moisture content, moisture ratio, drying rate, drying time and effective moisture diffusivity (D eff ) of bamboo shoot was investigated using microwave drying. To study the effect of microwave power on drying, bamboo shoot samples (250 g) were dried at different power levels ranging from 140 to 350 W. To determine the kinetic parameters, drying data were fitted to various models based on the ratios of differences between initial and final moisture contents and equilibrium moisture content. Among the models proposed, Wang and Singh model gave a better fit for all drying conditions used. By increasing microwave output power, the D eff values increased from 4.153 x 10 -10 to 22.835 x 10 -10 m 2 s -1 . A third-order polynomial relationship was found to correlate the D eff with moisture content. Further scope of this research work would include the effect of certain factors (shrinkage, case hardening, distortion of product and shape of bamboo shoot samples as an infinite slab) of practical significance to improve the model.

Drying kinetics and effective moisture diffusivity of bamboo shoot slices undergoing microwave drying

(redness ⁄ greenness), and b (yellowness ⁄ blueness) system. These values were also used for calculation of total colour change (DE), chroma, hue angle, and browning index (BI). Microwave drying as expected changed colour parameters because of browning. The values of L and b decreased, while values of a and DE increased during drying. Mathematical modelling of colour change kinetics indicated that L, b, chroma and BI could be defined using a first-order kinetic model, while a, DE and hue angle could be defined using a zero-order kinetic model. Considering together colour deterioration and quality of dried bamboo shoot slices at higher power reveals the need of process standardisation for getting good quality product.

Original article Kinetics of colour change of bamboo shoot slices during microwave drying

Summary Effect of microwave power on moisture content, moisture ratio, drying rate, drying time and effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) of bamboo shoot was investigated using microwave drying. To study the effect of microwave power on drying, bamboo shoot samples (250 g) were dried at different power levels ranging from 140 to 350 W. To determine the kinetic parameters, drying data were fitted to various models based on the ratios of differences between initial and final moisture contents and equilibrium moisture content. Among the models proposed, Wang and Singh model gave a better fit for all drying conditions used. By increasing microwave output power, the Deff values increased from 4.153 · 10 )10 to 22.835 · 10 )10 m 2 s )1 . A thirdorder polynomial relationship was found to correlate the Deff with moisture content. Further scope of this research work would include the effect of certain factors (shrinkage, case hardening, distortion of product and shape of bamboo shoot samples as an infinite slab) of practical significance to improve the model.

Original article Drying kinetics and effective moisture diffusivity of bamboo shoot slices undergoing microwave drying

Cyanogenic glycosides are naturally occurring compounds and are classified as secondaryplant metabolites have been produced by many plant species Hydrogen cyanide remains a product ofenzymatic hydrolysis and thus a matter of concern when consumed fresh or raw Bamboo shoot is onesuch species which liberates cyanide upon hydrolysis of Taxiphyllin Literature on the toxicity aspectof bamboo shoots is scattered and very few studies report its significance, determination of toxic levelsand ways to eliminate the toxic content to make it safe for consumption With this background, thispaper tries to reflect light on the safety aspect of bamboo shoots which cannot be neglected when wesay bamboo shoots are nutritious vegetables Therefore compiled and comprehensive information hasbeen provided on the cyanogenic content in different species of bamboo shoots, fate of metabolism of Taxiphyllin and itsdegradation, health implications of cyanide poisoning and ways to eliminate it from shoots

Cyanogenic Toxicity and Human Health

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