We previously described that low-dose Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in cynomolgus macaques results in a spectrum of disease similar to that of human infection: primary disease, latent infection, and reactivation tuberculosis (S. V. Capuano III, D. A. Croix, S. Pawar, A. Zinovik, A. Myers, P. L. Lin, S. Bissel, C. Fuhrman, E. Klein, and J. L. Flynn, Infect. Immun. 71:5831-5844, 2003). This is the only established model of latent infection, and it provides a unique opportunity to understand host and pathogen differences across of range of disease states. Here, we provide a more extensive and detailed characterization of the gross pathology, microscopic histopathology, and immunologic characteristics of monkeys in each clinical disease category. The data underscore the similarities between human and nonhuman primate M. tuberculosis infection. Furthermore, we describe novel methods of quantifying gross pathology and bacterial burden that distinguish between active disease and latent infection, and we extend the usefulness of this model for comparative studies. Early in infection, an abnormal chest X ray, M. tuberculosis growth by gastric aspirate, and increased mycobacterium-specific gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells were associated with the development of active disease. At necropsy, disease was quantified with respect to pathology and bacterial numbers. Microscopically, a spectrum of granuloma types are seen and differ with disease type. At necropsy, monkeys with active disease had more lung T cells and more IFN-γ from PBMC, BAL, and mediastinal lymph nodes than monkeys with latent infection. Finally, we have observed a spectrum of disease not only in monkeys with active disease but also in those with latent infection that provides insight into human latent tuberculosis.

/pdf/quantitative-comparison-of-active-and-latent-tuberculosis-in-13ow7qtzmh.pdf

Quantitative Comparison of Active and Latent Tuberculosis in the Cynomolgus Macaque Model

Non-human primates (NHPs) are used to model human disease owing to their remarkably similar genomes, physiology, and immune systems. Recently, there has been an increased interest in modeling tuberculosis (TB) in NHPs. Macaques are susceptible to infection with different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), producing the full spectrum of disease conditions, including latent infection, chronic progressive infection, and acute TB, depending on the route and dose of infection. Clearly, NHPs are an excellent model of human TB. While the initial aim of the NHP model was to allow preclinical testing of candidate vaccines and drugs, it is now also being used to study pathogenesis and immune correlates of protection. Recent advances in this field are discussed in this review. Key questions such as the effect of hypoxia on the biology of Mtb and the basis of reactivation of latent TB can now be investigated through the use of this model.

/pdf/the-non-human-primate-model-of-tuberculosis-56a2jx5uaq.pdf

The non‐human primate model of tuberculosis

Nonhuman primates have emerged as an excellent model of human tuberculosis, in large part because they recapitulate the full spectrum of infection outcome and pathology seen in humans. Several variables inherent to the nonhuman primate models of tuberculosis are discussed in this review, including the monkey species, Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains, and routes of infection, all of which can influence the model to be chosen for various studies. New technologies for studying the microbiology, immunology, and pathogenesis of tuberculosis in nonhuman primates have greatly expanded the capabilities of this model for basic and translational studies, including the development and testing of new treatment and prevention strategies for tuberculosis.

http://perspectivesinmedicine.cshlp.org/content/early/2014/09/11/cshperspect.a018564.full.pdf

Modeling tuberculosis in nonhuman primates

Recombinant Mycobacterium bovis BCG.

BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin), an attenuated vaccine derived from Mycobacterium bovis, is the current vaccine of choice against tuberculosis (TB). Despite its protection against active TB in children, BCG has failed to protect adults against TB infection and active disease development, especially in developing countries where the disease is endemic. Currently, there is a significant effort towards the development of a new TB vaccine. This review article aims to address publications on recombinant BCG (rBCG) published in the last 5 years, to highlight the strategies used to develop rBCG, with a focus on the criteria used to improve immunological memory and protection compared with BCG. The literature review was done in April 2013, using the key words tuberculosis, rBCG vaccine and memory. This review discusses the BCG strains and strategies currently used for the modification of BCG, including: overexpression of M. tuberculosis (Mtb) immunodominant antigens already present in BCG; gene insertion of immunodominant antigens from Mtb absent in the BCG vaccine; combination of introduction and over expression of genes that are lost during the attenuation process of BCG; BCG modifications for the induction of CD8+ T cell immune responses and cytokines expressing rBCG. Among the vaccines discussed, VPM1002, also called rBCGΔureC::hly, is currently in human clinical trials. Much progress has been made in the effort to improve BCG, with some promising candidates, but considerable work is still required to address functional long-lasting memory.

/pdf/recombinant-bcg-innovations-on-an-old-vaccine-scope-of-bcg-3n852daqn3.pdf

Recombinant BCG: Innovations on an Old Vaccine. Scope of BCG Strains and Strategies to Improve Long-Lasting Memory

Protective efficacy of recombinant BCG Tokyo (Ag85A) in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) infected intratracheally with H37Rv Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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Protective efficacy of recombinant BCG Tokyo (Ag85A) in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) infected intratracheally with H37Rv Mycobacterium tuberculosis