Recent developments on the production of omega-3 fatty acid concentrates have been reviewed with an emphasis on the scientific articles published from 2000. At first, a description of the role of essential fatty acids in the organism and the influence of omega-3 fatty acids in human health is presented. An account of the review articles that have been published in previous years related to the production or isolation of omega-3 fatty acids is then provided. The publications that have appeared over the last 8 years have been reviewed under two groupings, one involving the production of omega-3 from fish, and the other involving the isolation from alternative sources. Fish is the major source of omega-3 fatty acids and the fish oil extraction processes have been considered firstly, then the fish oil refining processes are presented and finally the omega-3 concentration from fish oil. Some considerations on the stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids against hydrolysis and oxidation and the procedures to avoid it are also presented at the end of this review. Industrial relevance Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are being used quite extensively in the food industry to obtain omega-3 enriched food products. Most of the commercial concentrates that can be found nowadays are the omega-3 ethyl ester derivatives. However, research is ongoing to obtain the more natural and better digestible triglyceride concentrates. We present here a review of the most recent advances, regarding the production of omega-3 concentrates from the very first raw material that contains them from which they should be extracted to the omega-3 concentrates stabilization. In between, a good number of different technologies that are being industrially applied, or still under investigation, are reviewed. One of the technologies with high expectation is supercritical fluid technology, and it finds a relevant place in the review here presented. Industries involved on innovation, require rapid overviews of the different possibilities open for production, and in that sense, this review is expected to be of interest.

Production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrates: A review

The occurrence and incidence of different diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes may be related to the consumption of high calorie calorie-containing diets combined with sedentary lifestyles. The concept of functional foods first appeared in Japan where it was considered to be a tool to promote health and well-being. In 1992, the Japanese government established a policy of “Foods of Specific Health Uses” (FOSHU). This concept was further developed in Europe within the “Functional Food Science in Europe” (FUFOSE) project supported by the European Commission (EC) and co-ordinated by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). Several interesting points were observed at the end of this project (Bellisle, F., A.T. Diplock, G. Hornstra, B. Koletzko, M. Roberfroid, S. Salminen, et al. 1998. Functional food science in Europe. British Journal of Nutrition 80:1–193; Diplock, A.T., P.J. Agget, M. Ashwell, F. Bornet, E.B. Fern, M.B. Roberfroid. 1999. Scientific concepts of functional foods in Europe: Consensus document. British Journal of Nutrition 81:S1–S27), including a definition of a functional food as “a food which is demonstrated to positively affect one or more physiological functions, so that it is able to increase the well-being and/or to reduce the risk to suffer a disease” (Diplock, A.T., P.J. Agget, M. Ashwell, F. Bornet, E.B. Fern, M.B. Roberfroid. 1999. Scientific concepts of functional foods in Europe: Consensus document. British Journal of Nutrition 81:S1–S27). This definition implies that a functional food must maintain the shape of the food (thereby excluding pills and capsules) and that the functional food must impart a physiological effect following consumption that is above and beyond any observed nutritional effects.

Extraction and Characterization of Bioactive Compounds with Health Benefits from Marine Resources: Macro and Micro Algae, Cyanobacteria, and Invertebrates

Dense gas techniques, which utilize the properties of fluids in the vicinity of the critical point, are increasingly being used for the processing of pharmaceuticals. Dense gases are unique solvents that can be used for extractions, chromatographic separations, and chemical syntheses because of their liquidlike solvation power and gaslike mass-transfer properties. The processes can be conducted at moderate temperatures and are thus suitable for many heat-labile compounds such as proteins, biocompatible polymers, and pharmaceuticals. The products formed by dense-gas processes are generally free of residual solvent. Recent applications of dense gas techniques have focused on micronization; crystallization of high-purity particles; sterilization; and drug formulations, including the formation of liposomes and drug coatings. The following review presents examples of drug extraction, separation, synthesis, sterilization, and particle formation and demonstrates the broad application of dense gases for drug form...

Processing Pharmaceutical Compounds Using Dense Gas Technology

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), which has received much interest in its use and further development for industrial applications, is a method that offers some advantages over conventional methods, especially for the palm oil industry. SC-CO2 refers to supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) that uses carbon dioxide (CO2) as a solvent which is a nontoxic, inexpensive, nonflammable, and nonpolluting supercritical fluid solvent for the extraction of natural products. Almost 100% oil can be extracted and it is regarded as safe, with organic solvent-free extracts having superior organoleptic profiles. The palm oil industry is one of the major industries in Malaysia that provides a major contribution to the national income. Malaysia is the second largest palm oil and palm kernel oil producer in the World. This paper reviews advances in applications of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction of oils from natural sources, in particular palm oil, minor constituents in palm oil, producing fractionated, refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil, palm kernel oil and purified fatty acid fractions commendable for downstream uses as in toiletries and confectionaries.

https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/17/2/1764/pdf

Applications of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of palm oil and oil from natural sources.

Supercritical fluid chromatography in food analysis.

A preparative supercritical fluid chromatography process to obtain enriched fractions of eicosapentaenoic ethyl ester (EPA-EE) is investigated. The starting mixture, containing about 68% of EPA-EE, is fractionated by a silica adsorption column where carbon dioxide (CO2) is used as the supercritical solvent. Different types of silica gel are used and compared. Experiments are carried out first on a bench-scale apparatus and then on a pilot plant. Eluted samples are collected and successively analyzed by capillary and packed column gas chromatography. Different process operating conditions are examined and discussed. In the bench scale equipment a 95% EPA-EE fraction is achieved, in the pilot plant the maximum purity is 93%. The amount of arachidonate ethyl ester is lowered. Yields higher than 40% w/w are generally obtained. Issues related to the scale-up of the process are briefly addressed.

Production of EPA enriched mixtures by supercritical fluid chromatography: from the laboratory scale to the pilot plant

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Production of EPA enriched mixtures by supercritical fluid chromatography: from the laboratory scale to the pilot plant