The lunar south pole is a region of focused scientific and exploration interest, with several crewed and robotic missions to this region planned within the next decade. Understanding the mineralogy of the region is essential to inform landing site characterization and selection and provides the key context for interpreting samples and in situ observations. At high latitudes, extreme illumination conditions (high phase angles) can negatively impact the data quality of orbital instruments. This is especially true for passive near‐infrared spectrometers such as the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) and the Kaguya Spectral Profiler, which measure the spectral properties of the surface using reflected sunlight. Using Moon Mineralogy Mapper data, we observed that the south polar region is associated with a detectable mafic signature consistent with the presence of pyroxenes. The strongest mafic signatures are associated with the South Pole—Aitken Basin, suggesting that impact melt and basin ejecta from the lower crust and upper mantle are present within this region. This observation is validated in several ways: (a) comparisons between M3 data acquired during different mission phases, (b) comparisons between multiple spectral parameters sensitive to the presence of mafic minerals, (c) comparisons between the north and south lunar polar regions, and (d) comparisons with publicly available Kaguya polar mineralogy maps and Lunar Prospector elemental abundances. We also investigate the nature of an anomalous high‐albedo region within 2–3° of the south pole observed in Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter reflectance data exhibiting a spatially conflicting apparent FeO abundance pattern between several data sets.

Mineralogical Characterization of the Lunar South Polar Region: 1. The Artemis Exploration Zone

The present‐day distribution of mare basalts on the Moon is an important constraint on the timing, duration, and flux of volcanism on the Moon. In this work, we find the global distribution of visible mares and cryptomares using the effective density (ρeff) of the Moon, which is sensitive to the vertical density distribution of the crust. We compute ρeff using the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) data and the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) topography data. We apply this ρeff approach to the search of cryptomare for the first time, and we use a higher resolution grid and larger search area to constrain visible mare thicknesses compared to previous work. We use a Bayesian approach to find the distribution of mare thicknesses and density gradients of the underlying crust that is consistent with the localized ρeff. Assuming a bulk density of the mare basalts of 3,460 kg/m3, we find a mean visible mare thickness of km which is consistent with previous work. We find a candidate cryptomare volume of km3 representing more than half of the total mare volume on Moon. This volume is consistent with the higher end of the previously proposed values. Finally, we search for dark halo craters (DHC) globally to obtain geologic evidence of cryptomares and find 258 craters. Our results are consistent with extensive ancient volcanism, which explains the previously identified discrepancy between the early high volcanic flux predicted by thermal models of the Moon and the dearth of ancient volcanic deposits currently exposed.

Global Distribution and Volume of Cryptomare and Visible Mare on the Moon From Gravity and Dark Halo Craters

On the basis of the theory of sequence stratigraphy,identifying sequence stratigraphy boundaries using well logging of SP(spontaneous potential),AC(acoustic time),RA(apparent resistivity),electric conductivity were comprehensively analyzed.In this paper,five methods are introduced to recognize sequence stratigraphy boundaries: SP and SP mirror image,method of combination of SP and RA,AC method,crossing method of AC and RA,and electric conductivity method so on.Some examples have applied to prove that these methods are feasible.Applied effect is better.

Identifying sequence stratigraphy boundaries using well logging

The recognition of sequence boundaries is a key problem in Sequence Stratigraphy. Seismic data, core and logging data are often applied to recognize them. But because of the limitation of seismic resolution and the length of the cores, a lot of logging data are needed in order to improve the accuracy of recognition of sequence boundaries. In this paper, four methods are introduced to recognize sequence boundaries: (1) method of the combination of SP (spontaneous potential) and Ra (apparent resistivity), (2) AC (acoustic time) method,(3) TOC (total organic carbon) method, (4) accumulation angle method. Finally, some examples have applied to prove that these methods are feasible.

Discussion of the methods of using logging curves to recognize sequence boundaries

High-alumina (HA) mare basalts play a critical role in lunar mantle differentiation. Although remote sensing methods have speculated their potential presence regions based on sample FeO and TiO2 compositions, the location and distribution characteristics of HA basalts have not been provided. In this study, the compositions of exposed rocks in Mare Imbrium were determined using Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Diviner oxides and Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (LP-GRS) Thorium (Th) products. The exposed HA basalts were identified based on laboratory lithology classification criteria and Al2O3 abundance. The HA basalt units were mapped based on lunar topographic data, and their morphological geological characteristics were calculated based on elevation data. The results show that there are 8406 HA basalt pixels and 17 original units formed by volcanic eruptions in Mare Imbrium. The statistics of their morphology characteristics show that the HA basalts are widely distributed in the northern part of Mare Imbrium, and their compositions have a large range of variation. These units have different area and volume, and the layers formed were discontinuous. The characteristic analysis shows that the aluminum-bearing volcanic activities in Mare Imbrium were irregular. The eruptions of four different source regions occurred in three phases, and the scale and extent of the eruptions were different. The results in this study provide reliable evidence for the heterogeneity of the lunar mantle and contribute valuable information to the formation process of early lunar mantle materials.

Lunar High Alumina Basalts in Mare Imbrium

High alumina basalts identification and their feature analysis in Mare Fecunditatis

Cryptomaria play critical roles in elucidating the early thermal history of the Moon. In contrast with traditional dark halo impact crater (DHC) identification methods, this study focused on exposed rock (0.5%–29.54% rock abundance) surfaces as windows for cryptomare identification. We classified the lithology of these rock surfaces to find those that match mare basalt using major element oxide products based on data from the Diviner instrument aboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and by Lunar Prospector thorium products, in accordance with laboratory lithological classification criteria. Then, by combining the locations of 0.5%–29.54% rock abundance values with the lithologies, we created a map of exposed basaltic rock surfaces and 14 cryptomare candidate regions with dozens of closely spaced basaltic rock pixels were identified across the Moon. Among 14 candidate regions, 11 cryptomaria were consistent with results in literature (Whitten & Head, 2015a; https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ICARUS.2014.09.031) based on DHCs, and 3 cryptomaria were newly identified. In the Schiller‐Schickard region, we refined the boundaries of 18 individual cryptomare units using our rock analysis combined with LRO color shaded relief maps. A detailed analysis of the distribution, composition, area, depth, thickness, and volume and the morphological features of these 18 identified cryptomare units indicates that the basalt materials covered by the Orientale basin or other impact crater ejecta display variable thicknesses and discontinuous layers. These identified cryptomare units and their morphological features provide information on regional stratigraphy as well as on the thermal evolution of the Moon.

A New Method for the Identification of Lunar Cryptomaria and Their Analysis in the Schiller‐Schickard Region

Logging data, as representations of lithology and physical properties of stratum, hold abundant information related to sedimentary cycles with high vertical resolution. The use of various methods to extract and analyze corresponding information will greatly promote the quantitative level in the study of stratum sequence. SP mirror (spontaneous potential), the ratio of sand and mud, CN (neutron)-GR (natural gamma ray) curve overlay technique and wavelet analyses were comprehensively analyzed in this paper. Application in X block of Algeria that it has a great effect and is a good tool in the parasequence sets study. Continuously improve the level of utilization of logging data, full logging data in sequence stratigraphic analysis of the role and scope of application will be beneficial for the development of sequence stratigraphy.

Identifying Parasequence Sets Boundaries by Using Well Logging Data

A neural network topographic correction method for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner Christiansen feature map

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High alumina basalts identification and their feature analysis in Mare Fecunditatis

A New Method for the Identification of Lunar Cryptomaria and Their Analysis in the Schiller‐Schickard Region

Identifying Parasequence Sets Boundaries by Using Well Logging Data

A neural network topographic correction method for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner Christiansen feature map