P. M. Greenfield's new theory of social change and human development aims to show how changing sociodemographic ecologies alter cultural values and learning environments and thereby shift developmental pathways. Worldwide sociodemographic trends include movement from rural residence, informal education at home, subsistence economy, and low-technology environments to urban residence, formal schooling, commerce, and high-technology environments. The former ecology is summarized by the German term Gemeinschaft ("community") and the latter by the German term Gesellschaft ("society"; Tonnies, 1887/1957). A review of empirical research demonstrates that, through adaptive processes, movement of any ecological variable in a Gesellschaft direction shifts cultural values in an individualistic direction and developmental pathways toward more independent social behavior and more abstract cognition--to give a few examples of the myriad behaviors that respond to these sociodemographic changes. In contrast, the (much less frequent) movement of any ecological variable in a Gemeinschaft direction is predicted to move cultural values and developmental pathways in the opposite direction. In conclusion, sociocultural environments are not static either in the developed or the developing world and therefore must be treated dynamically in developmental research.

Linking Social Change and Developmental Change: Shifting Pathways of Human Development.

This study investigated differences in attention and learning among Guatemalan Mayan and European American children, ages 5-11 years, who were present but not addressed while their sibling was shown how to construct a novel toy. Each child waited with a distracter toy for her or his turn to make a different toy. Nonaddressed children from Mayan traditional families (with little maternal involvement in Western schooling; n = 40) showed more sustained attention and learning than their counterparts from Mayan families with extensive involvement in Western schooling (n = 40) or European American children (with extensive family involvement in schooling; n = 40). The nonaddressed Mayan children from highly schooled families in turn attended more than the European American children. These findings are consistent with research showing that traditional indigenous ways of organizing learning emphasize observation of ongoing interactions.

Children's attention to interactions directed to others: Guatemalan mayan and european american patterns.

This article examines how 31 triads of 6- to 10-year-old children from 3 cultural backgrounds organized their interactions while folding Origami figures. Triads of children whose families had immigrated to the United States from indigenous heritage regions of Mexico (and whose mothers averaged only 7 grades of schooling) coordinated more often as an ensemble, whereas triads of European heritage U.S. children whose mothers had extensive schooling more often engaged dyadically or individually. When the European heritage children did engage as an ensemble, this often involved chatting rather than nonverbal conversation regarding folding, which was more common among the Mexican heritage children. Mexican heritage U.S. triads whose mothers had extensive schooling showed an intermediate pattern or resembled the European heritage children.

Cultural Variation in Children's Social Organization

The study builds on ethnographic research noting an emphasis in many Indigenous communities of the Americas on learning through keen observation of and participation in ongoing community activities. Forty-four U.S. Mexican-heritage 5- to 11-year-old children whose families likely have experience with Indigenous ways more frequently attended to and learned from a toy construction activity that was directed to another child, compared to 36 U.S. Mexican-heritage children whose mothers had extensive experience with Western school (and related European American practices). The results support the idea that children whose family history emanates from Indigenous communities of Mexico may be especially oriented to learning by observing ongoing events, and that this method of learning may be less commonly used by children whose families have extensive experience with schooling (and related Western practices).

Mexican-heritage children's attention and learning from interactions directed to others.

This article argues that a generational approach focusing on changing constellations of cultural practices helps to understand culture. We contrast this approach with the “box approach,” which categorizes individuals by racial or ethnic ancestry. The article focuses on the survival, disappearance, and transformation of constellations of cultural practices related to Learning by Observing and Pitching In to activities of the family and community (LOPI) in Indigenous communities of the Americas, across time and place. We illustrate the importance of considering constellations of cultural practices by showing connections among schooling, urban/rural residence, occupations, Indigenous birthing and spiritual practices, and LOPI across three cultural communities in a Mexican metropolis across three generations. We argue that a constellation of practices, including the cultural tradition of Learning by Observing and Pitching In to family and community endeavors, links widespread communities with Indigenous practices of the Americas.

Constellations of Cultural Practices across Generations: Indigenous American Heritage and Learning by Observing and Pitching In

Developmental Psychology and Social Change: A Cultural/Historical View of Schooling in Human Development

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Developmental Psychology and Social Change: A Cultural/Historical View of Schooling in Human Development