Prey behavioral responses to predation risk in wolf–ungulate–plant systems are of interest to wildlife managers. Using Global Positioning System data collected from telemetry-collared elk (Cervus elaphus) and wolves (Canis lupus), we evaluated elk behavioral responses to spatial and temporal variation in wolf- and human-predation risk on a winter range in the Greater Yellowstone Area, USA. We found elk changed grouping patterns and increased movement rates as predation risk increased and that these behavioral changes were habitat dependent. Elk behavioral responses to wolf- and human-predation risk were similar; however, responses to human-predation risk were stronger than responses to wolf-predation risk. These results suggest that predation risk from wolves or human hunters may result in elk spending more time on private rangelands away from public-land winter ranges, which may exacerbate problems of landowner tolerance of elk on livestock pastures. However, increased movement and changing grou...

Contrasting effects of wolves and human hunters on elk behavioral responses to predation risk.

Survival estimation is an important aspect of population ecology and conservation biology, and radiotelemetry is a major tool for assessing factors influencing survival time in free-ranging birds and mammals. Despite the advantage of telemetry in providing extensive and continuous survival information, telemetry-based survival estimates can be biased or imprecise when methods are misused. Simple cumulative survival estimators like the Heisey and Fuller and Kaplan-Meier methods have underlying assumptions and sampling requirements that commonly remain unverified by researchers. Telemetry studies often limit survival analysis to simple univariate tests that do not consider the range of factors potentially influencing mortality risk in free-ranging animals. Continuous-time modeling approaches like Cox Proportional Hazards or Anderson–Gill methods, or their discrete-time analogues, are superior because they are robust to a range of study design limitations and can handle multiple categorical or conti...

On Improving Telemetry-Based Survival Estimation

Wild boar have been increasing in numbers all over Western Europe in the last 30 years. The species is a major pest for agriculture, but it has a high value as a game species, and in Italy, as in several other countries, it is traditionally hunted in drive hunts by hunting teams with several dogs. This hunting method can have disruptive effects on the demography and spatial behaviour of wild boar, especially family groups. We conducted a 2-year study (2003 and 2004) to determine the effects of drive hunt disturbance on the spatial behaviour of wild boar family groups in the Northern Apennines (central Italy). Twenty wild boar belonging to ten family groups were ear tagged with a radio device. We located resting sites daily and used intensive tracking sessions during drive hunts. Three seasons were determined: pre-hunting, hunting and post-hunting. A general pattern of increased spatial instability during the hunting season was shown. Resting ranges were larger, and resting sites were more interspersed. Distances between consecutive resting sites were greater during the hunting season and, especially, on hunting days. The displacement of family groups caused by drive hunts was generally short lived except for those groups that were repeatedly hunted and so abandoned their pre-hunt (native) range. During drive hunts, wild boar showed a moderate tolerance to hunting disturbance, and only family groups which were directly chased by dogs escaped or altered their behaviour. The response of wild boar to hunting disturbance seemed to be highly related to the degree of hunting pressure combined with individual variability. The impact on wild boar behaviour should be reduced, above all by avoiding repeated hunts in the same areas within a short period and by employing well-trained hounds.

/pdf/do-intensive-drive-hunts-affect-wild-boar-sus-scrofa-spatial-3uy8vir164.pdf

Do intensive drive hunts affect wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) spatial behaviour in Italy? Some evidences and management implications

A review on the temporal pattern of deer-vehicle accidents: impact of seasonal, diurnal and lunar effects in cervids

Predator stimuli created by humans in the urban environment may alter animals’ anti-predator behaviors I hypothesized that habituation would cause anti-predator behaviors to decrease in urban settings in response to humans Additionally, I hypothesized that populations habituated to humans would show reduced responses to other predator stimuli I observed three populations of squirrels (urban, suburban and rural) responses to human approaches, red-tailed hawk vocalizations (Buteo jamaicensis) and coyote (Canis latrans) vocalizations Mahalanobis distances of anti-predator behaviors in response to human approaches were consistent with the urban–rural gradient Flight initiation distances (X
 2 = 2633, df = 2, P < 0001) and amount of time dedicated to anti-predator behavior (X
 2 = 1094, df = 2, P = 0004) in response to human approaches were also consistent with the urban–rural gradient Supporting the habituation hypothesis, naive juvenile squirrels increased flight initiation distances (X
 2 = 3589, df = 1, P < 0001) and time dedicated to anti-predator behaviors (X
 2 = 946, df = 1, P = 0002) relative to adult squirrels in the same urban environment Time dedicated to anti-predator behaviors differed among all three sites in response to both coyote (X
 2 = 983, df = 2, P = 0007) and hawk (X
 2 = 650, df = 2, P = 0035) vocalizations Responses to both vocalizations on rural sites (coyote = 45%, hawk = 55%) greater than twice that found on the urban sites (coyote = 11%, hawk = 20%) This is possibly the first case of a transfer of habituation demonstrated under field conditions

Changes in fox squirrel anti-predator behaviors across the urban-rural gradient.

Increases in motor vehicle traffic, habitat loss, and human-deer interactions due to urban development threaten the recovery and management of Florida Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) To evaluate these threats, we estimated current survival rates and compared them to historic estimates, evaluated the causes of mortality from 1966 to 2000, and determined life expectancy of deer from marked animals We radiomarked Florida Key deer as part of 2 separate field studies (1968-1972, 1998-2000), in addition to collecting mortality data and survey estimates (1966-2000) We analyzed survival data from 314 (157 male, 157 female) radiomarked deer using a known-fate model framework in program MARK We considered a suite of a priori models based on the biology and current knowledge of Florida Key deer, and ranked them using Akaike's Information Criterion ($text{AIC}_{c}$) model selection Important factors explaining deer survival were sex and geographical location Model-averaged annual male survival (0412-0842) was lower than female survival (0695-0888) Marked female deer (n = 35) lived an average of 65 years (maximum 19 years), while marked male deer (n = 43) lived an average of 29 years (maximum 12 years) Deer survival also increased as deer moved away from US Highway 1 (US 1) Deer-motor vehicle collisions accounted for >50% of total deer mortality, half of which occurred on US 1 Annual deer mortality since 1972 has increased and is attributed to an increase in the deer population size (1972-2000, 240%) We recommend finding methods to reduce deer-motor vehicle collisions because of human safety concerns As efforts to reduce deer-motor vehicle collisions continue, biologists need to address high deer densities in management of this locally abundant but endangered deer population

Survival, Mortality, and Life Expectancy of Florida Key Deer

We modified the bear cage trap with a low-cost remotely triggered trap door and fitted the trap with a motion activated camera that relayed bear captures to researchers in real time. We built 4 modified bear cage traps and used them to capture free-ranging American black bears (Ursus americanus) during summer 2020 on MPG Ranch in western Montana, USA. Lacking data on bear confinement time in traps from previous studies, we compared the amount of time that bears were confined in our modified traps with estimated confinement time had the same bears in our study been captured in traditional traps that were physically checked once daily at 0900, once daily at 1200, or twice daily at 0900 and 1600. We captured bears 30 times during 195 trap nights. The camera system relayed photos of all captures in real time and the remotely triggered door release was 100% successful. When we evaluated all bear captures and recaptures (n = 30), mean bear confinement time in our modified traps (4.92 hrs) was significantly lower than estimated mean confinement time had the same bears been captured in traditional traps that were checked once daily at 0900 (14.95 hrs), once daily at 1200 (10.73 hrs), or twice daily at 0900 and 1600 (7.01 hrs). For bears that were recaptured during regular trap monitoring hours (0700–1800) and remotely released without immobilization (n = 12), mean confinement time in our modified traps was <1 hr. By remotely monitoring traps, we saved an estimated US $6,580 or $13,624 in gas and staff hours during 3 months of trapping, had we physically checked traps once or twice daily, respectively. Our modified traps minimized animal confinement time, eliminated unnecessary animal immobilizations, and helped us maximize time and resource efficiencies. Our findings are relevant to bear research and management, and the technology we used can be adapted for trapping other wildlife species. 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/wsb.1295

Remotely triggered door and real‐time monitoring for bear cage traps

Movement of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) to private land in Colorado, USA, is problematic for population management because once on private land, elk are largely unavailable for harvest. We evaluated the relative effects of reducing hunter numbers and changes in opening dates of early-season hunting (archery) on elk movement to private land during a 4-year field experiment. Our study area was divided into north (NTA) and south (STA) treatment areas. Eighty adult female elk were captured and radiomarked during July 1996. From 1996 to 1999, we relocated radiomarked elk 2 times per week for a 2- to 3-month period surrounding archery season opening dates, and we classified each elk location as being on public or private land. In 1996 and 1997, NTA and STA opening dates were manipulated, and in 1998 and 1999, the number of NTA archery licenses sold was reduced approximately 50%. Using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) model selection to generate estimates, we found that elk movement to private land was not affected by a 50% reduction in hunter numbers. Likewise, the best AIC model exploring the mean date of elk movement to private land did not include a variable for hunter numbers treatment; the model included only an area variable. However, mean date of elk movement (±95% CI) overlapped opening day of archery season in 7 of 8 cases, indicating that elk shifted the timing of their movements to private land in response to the beginning of hunting season. Delaying archery opening day had a greater effect on retarding elk movement onto private land than reducing hunter numbers. More intense management, such as reducing hunter densities for >2 consecutive years, or decreasing hunter numbers by greater proportions, may be required to alter elk movements onto private lands compared to the more successful option of delaying archery opening day.

Effects of archery hunter numbers and opening dates on elk movement

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Survival, Mortality, and Life Expectancy of Florida Key Deer

Remotely triggered door and real‐time monitoring for bear cage traps

Effects of archery hunter numbers and opening dates on elk movement