A comprehensive overview is presented on the implication of silica-based organic-inorganic hybrid materials in electrochemical science. It involves composite materials of both class I (weak bonds between the organic and inorganic components) and class II (strong chemical bonds). Starting with a description of the common designs of electrodes modified with these hybrids, the review then reports their applications in the various fields of electrochemistry, illustrating the diversity of the organically modified silicates used for this purpose. The mild chemical conditions allowed by the sol-gel process provide very versatile access to these electrochemical devices. They have found many applications in electroanalysis, including preconcentration associated with voltammetric detection, permselective coatings, electrochemical sensors, electrocatalysis, and detectors for chromatography. They were also applied as redox and conducting polymers, as solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, for the design of spectroelectrochemical and electro-chemiluminescence devices, and in the field of electrochemical biosensors.

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Electrochemical Applications of Silica-Based Organic−Inorganic Hybrid Materials

A review of the principles and application of modern electroanalytical techniques, namely, cyclic voltammetry, linear sweep voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, differential pulse polarography, square wave voltammetry, square wave polarography, stripping voltammetric, and stripping polarographic techniques, is presented. The use and advantages of these techniques at different electrodes are discussed. The analytical applications of these techniques to pharmaceutical compounds in dosage forms and biological media are also discussed. Various selected studies on these subjects since 1995 are reviewed.

Analysis of Pharmaceuticals and Biological Fluids Using Modern Electroanalytical Techniques

The paper describes fabrication and application of electrochemical sensor for simultaneous determination of paracetamol (PCT), cetirizine (CTZ) and phenylephrine (PHE) based on carbon paste electrode modified with multiwalled carbon nanotube-platinum nanoparticles (MWCNT-PtNPs) nanocomposite. The MWCNT-PtNPs composite was characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The main advantage of multiwalled carbon nanotube-platinum nanoparticles modified carbon paste electrode (MWCNT-PtNPs-CPE) is that sensitivity of stripping response is increased and separation of PCT, CTZ and PHE signals is improved. The electrochemical oxidation of PCT, CTZ and PHE has been investigated by application of said electrode using cyclic voltammetry (CV), adsorptive stripping differential pulse voltammetry (AdSDPV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Under optimized experimental conditions PCT, CTZ and PHE gave linear response over the linear ranges 3.51 × 10−7–5.61 × 10−5 M, 1.9 × 10−7–1.93 × 10−4 M and 2.9 × 10−7–5.69 × 10−5 M for PCT, CTZ and PHE, respectively. The detection limits were found to be 2.79 × 10−8 M, 5.86 × 10−8 M and 2.83 × 10−8 M for PCT, CTZ and PHE respectively. The method described is highly sensitive and has been applied for the simultaneous determination of PCT, CTZ and PHE in commercially available pharmaceutical formulations, blood serum and urine samples. A good recovery level obtained for real samples suggests practical utility of the MWCNT-PtNPs-CPE as an effective and reliable electrochemical sensor for simultaneous determination of PCT, CTZ and PHE.

Simultaneous voltammetric determination of paracetamol, cetirizine and phenylephrine using a multiwalled carbon nanotube-platinum nanoparticles nanocomposite modified carbon paste electrode

Voltammetric sensor for vanillylmandelic acid based on molecularly imprinted polymer-modified electrodes.

This research work describes the electrochemical activity of aminotriazole (ATZ) by constructing titanium-dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) based carbon paste electrode (TiO2/CTAB-CPE). Square wave voltammetric technique was employed to investigate herbicide, ATZ in the soil as well as in water samples. The characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles was achieved using XRD and TEM techniques. Owing to the supreme sensing properties, TiO2/CTAB-CPE was recognized as sensitive for the detection of ATZ as the sensor demonstrated improved catalytic characteristics and peak current in presence of pH 7.0 of 0.2 PBS i.e., phosphate buffer solution through cyclic voltammetric (CV) along with square wave voltammetric (SWV) techniques. The peak current for the modified CPE observed to be 18. 92 μ A with peak potential 0.912 V and for the bare carbon paste electrode (BCPE) the peak current is 4 μ A with the peak potential at 0.975 V. The impact of electro-kinetic parameters including heterogeneous rate constant, scan rate, transfer coefficient, pH, activation energy, accumulation time, temperature effect, and also the number of electrons and protons entailed in the ATZ electro-oxidation was resolved. The detection limit and the quantification limit of the ATZ was found to be 2.53 nM and 8.44 nM respectively. The proposed method proved to be a propitious procedure for precise determination of the ATZ herbicide in water and soil samples.

Highly sensitive electrochemical assay for selective detection of Aminotriazole based on TiO2/poly(CTAB) modified sensor

Measurement of nanomolar levels of psychoactive drugs in urine by adsorptive stripping voltammetry.

An electrochemical method by adsorptive stripping voltammetry with a modified carbon paste electrode with C18 bonded silica gel is described for the determination of ephedrine in human urine samples. The preconcentration step is performed at open circuit and constant stirring (1000 rpm) in 5×10−4 M sodium hydroxide and the measurement step in ammonia-ammonium chloride buffer (pH=10.0; 0.2 M) by linear scan voltammetry to 150 mVs−1 between 0.20 and 1.10 V. With the proposed method, ephedrine can be directly determined in urine, a relative standard deviation of 3.4% (n=12) and a detection limit of 270 μgmL−1 for a 2 minute preconcentration time, were obtained.

Ephedrine Determination in Human Urine Using a Carbon Paste Electrode Modified with C18 Bonded Silica Gel

An electrochemical method for the determination of carbaryl, after prior oxidation to 1,4-naphthoquinone in natural water and soils is reported. The coulometric oxidation of carbaryl at a platinum electrode was studied using 0.024 mol/L Britton-Robinson buffer (pH 7.0). The reduction of the oxidation product 1,4-naphthoquinone at a dropping mercury electrode was used for the indirect determination of carbaryl after separation on C18 Sep-pak cartridges by differential pulse polarography (detection limits: 0.41 mg L−1 of water and 0.47 mg kg−1 of soil) and directly without separation by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (detection limits: 5 μg L−1 of water and 7 μg kg−1 of soil, for 75 s preconcentration time). Relative errors were lower than 3.7% and relative standard deviations smaller than 4.5%.

Electrochemical determination of carbaryl oxidation in natural water and soil samples

Voltammetric studies of a psychotropic drug with nitro groups. Determination of flunitrazepam in urine using HMDE.

Determination of ephedrine in human urine using a glassy carbon electrode

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