Cadmium (Cd) is a non-physiological heavy metal that can be harmful at low concentrations Increasing anthropogenic activities are incrementing the risk of accumulation of this heavy metal in different organs and tissues of the body In the case of pregnant women, the threat is more serious due to the implications affecting not only their own health but also fetal development as well Metallothioneins (MTs), small cysteine-rich proteins, are involved in zinc (Zn) and copper homeostasis in mammals but can, however, also bind with Cd if present The accumulation of Cd in maternal tissues (eg placenta, maternal blood, and mammary glands) induces the synthesis of MTs, preferably MT2, in an attempt to sequester the metal to avoid toxicity The formed Cd–MT complexes will avoid the Cd transport from the placenta to the fetus and end up accumulating in the maternal kidneys At the same time, high concentrations of MTs will increase the formation of Zn–MT complexes, therefore decreasing the amount of Zn ions available to be transported to the fetus by means of Zn transporters such as ZnT2, ZIP14 and DMT1 Although MTs cannot transport Cd from the mother to the fetus, the divalent DMT1 transporter is suggested to carry the metal to the fetus As a consequence, the low levels of Zn(II) in the fetus, together with the presence of Cd(II) coming from the mother either via the placenta and cord blood or via breast milk induce changes in the fetal development including fetal growth retardation, and low weight or height of the newborn Likewise, the concentrations of Cd(II) in the newborn can cause alterations such as cognitive disabilities In summary, the presence of Cd(II) in the maternal tissues will induce MT synthesis in an attempt to detoxify these tissues and reduce the possible toxicity of Cd in fetal and newborn tissues

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Cadmium exposure during pregnancy and lactation: materno-fetal and newborn repercussions of Cd(II), and Cd–metallothionein complexes

Cadmium induces cytotoxicity through oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis pathway in duck renal tubular epithelial cells

Cadmium exposure exacerbates hyperlipidemia in cholesterol-overloaded hepatocytes via autophagy dysregulation.

Levels of non-essential trace metals and their impact on placental health: a review

76 pregnant women, among them 38 affected by gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and 38 control subjects, were recruited at the University Hospital of Padua (Italy). Placenta samples, maternal whole blood and umbilical cord whole blood were collected after delivery and analysed via ICP-MS to determine the metallome, i.e. the whole elemental content. Results were statistically evaluated to evidence the correlation between the elemental concentrations in all samples and the presence of the disease. The results obtained in whole cord blood showed that many elements were correlated with GDM: Ca, Cu, Na, and Zn were present in higher concentration in GDM cord blood than in control samples, whereas Fe, K, Mn, P, Rb, S and Si showed an opposite trend. It was also highlighted that the cord blood from GDM patients exhibited an elemental composition more similar to that of the mother blood compared with the cord blood from control subjects. These results, in part interpreted in the light of the literature, open the possibility to use cord blood as a GDM marker, thus helping to delineate more accurate nutritional guidelines for pregnant women and to explain the biochemical processes occurring in the fetus and placenta during GDM.

Maternal, placental and cordonal metallomic profiles in gestational diabetes mellitus

Metallothionein 2A gene polymorphism and trace elements in mother-newborn pairs in the Croatian population.

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Metallothionein 2A gene polymorphism and trace elements in mother-newborn pairs in the Croatian population.