Probably few policy areas of higher education have received more recent attention than the issue of race on campus. Evidence appears in policies and programs related to college admissions, financial aid, affirmative action, discrimination and harassment, and desegregation. Yet, at the same time, probably no area of campus life has been so devoid of policy initiatives as the racial climate at individual institutions. Until recently, there has been no common framework for understanding the campus racial climate in a way that helps develop policies and practices that can be used to enhance the campus climate. We pose four possible explanations for this phenomenon. First, higher education leaders and higher education institutions have taken the laissez-faire [End Page 279] approach that people will (should) work things out interactively and that it is wrong to intervene too closely in student interactions (Horowitz, 1987). The second explanation involves ambiguity in the role that colleges and universities perform as agents of socialization. Administrators and faculty recognize that students bring with them to college a sense of identity and purpose shaped by their parents, their communities, their religions, etc., and that these influences are critically important to students' growth and development. The quandary lies in just how much of a resocializing agent higher education institutions wish to be. Higher education has not decided whether it should merely reflect our society or whether it should try to consciously shape the society. Third, while research findings document the important role that faculty serve as the "designated socializing agents" in higher education (Feldman & Newcomb, 1969, p. 227), policy initiatives that address faculty attitudes and behaviors have been implemented only with great hesitation and caution. Until now, it seems that only the most problematic discriminatory behaviors of faculty have been addressed. Finally, the situation has been exacerbated by neglect. A rich history of research on issues that affect the campus racial climate has existed for some time. However, this research has not always been valued by the higher education community. A study analyzing the major paradigms used in manuscripts published in "major" higher education journals found that fewer than 2% used paradigms that addressed issues of race from a critical perspective with the goal of producing meaningful change (Milam, 1989). Attorneys, policy-makers, and institutional leaders across the country are searching for research evidence that demonstrates the benefits of diversity and documents persistent discrimination and inequality in higher education. Perhaps at no other time in our history have higher education scholars had the opportunity to provide evidence of the educational outcomes of diversity in a way that puts the benefits of diversity at the center of the educational enterprise. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how research on issues related to campus racial climate can be used to enhance educational policy and practice. Both classic and contemporary research can inform national policy and debates surrounding affirmative action and other policies to create diverse [P [S [J [Thi [ Ct

Enhancing Campus Climates for Racial/Ethnic Diversity: Educational Policy and Practice

Researchers have found that, compared to European Americans, African Americans report later initiation of drinking, lower rates of use, and lower levels of use across almost all age groups. Nevertheless, African Americans also have higher levels of alcohol problems than European Americans. After reviewing current data regarding these trends, we provide a theory to understand this apparent paradox as well as to understand variability in risk among African Americans. Certain factors appear to operate as both protective factors against heavy use and risk factors for negative consequences from use. For example, African American culture is characterized by norms against heavy alcohol use or intoxication, which protects against heavy use but which also provides within group social disapproval when use does occur. African Americans are more likely to encounter legal problems from drinking than European Americans, even at the same levels of consumption, perhaps thus resulting in reduced consumption but more problems from consumption. There appears to be one particular group of African Americans, low-income African American men, who are at the highest risk for alcoholism and related problems. We theorize that this effect is due to the complex interaction of residential discrimination, racism, age of drinking, and lack of available standard life reinforcers (e.g., stable employment and financial stability). Further empirical research will be needed to test our theories and otherwise move this important field forward. A focus on within group variation in drinking patterns and problems is necessary. We suggest several new avenues of inquiry.

/pdf/less-drinking-yet-more-problems-understanding-african-3504jse72c.pdf

Less drinking, yet more problems: Understanding African American drinking and related problems.

Almost half of the U.S. population will be racial/ethnic minorities by the year 2030 (Cortes, 1991). Colleges and universities are also becoming increasingly diverse and students of color are expected to comprise nearly two fifths of total undergraduate enrollment by 2015 (Carnevale & Fry, 2000). In several states, minority students already make up at least one third of the student body. For example, fall 2002 minority enrollments in the four most populous states—California, Texas, Florida, and New York—were 51%, 41%, 37%, and 32%, respectively (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2005). Faced with this dramatic demographic shift, leaders in the public and private sectors have called on colleges and universities to prepare students to function effectively in a diverse society (Association of American Colleges and Universities, 1995; Bikson & Law, 1994). Similar calls have come from within the academy by leaders such as Bowen and Bok (1998) and

/pdf/relationships-among-structural-diversity-informal-peer-3a7a07hwqn.pdf

Relationships among Structural Diversity, Informal Peer Interactions and Perceptions of the Campus Environment

The authors investigated the extent to which classroom pedagogical practices and disciplinary course focus contributed to understandings of social justice outcomes among 406 undergraduate students enrolled in five college courses. They found that gender, enrollment in Intergroup Dialogue, service-learning, Introduction to Sociology courses, and practices encouraging reflection, discussions about diversity, and diverse peer interactions contributed to students' social justice learning. The article concludes with a discussion of the findings' implications.

Pedagogical Practices That Contribute to Social Justice Outcomes

Affirmative action in college admissions is based on the premise that a diverse student body contributes to interactions among students from different backgrounds, which are in turn positively related to desirable outcomes of college. This study evaluates the merits of this rationale for affirmative action by examining the direct and indirect relationships between student-body diversity and students' gains in understanding people of other racial/ethnic backgrounds. Data from a nationally representative sample of 428 colleges and universities participating in the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) indicated that student-body diversity was indirectly, but not directly, related to gains in understanding people from diverse backgrounds. Results supported the use of affirmative action in college admissions, indicating that student body diversity is directly related to greater interaction among diverse groups, but not the quality of interpersonal relations on campus. Diversity of the student body was indirectly related to gains in understanding diverse groups, acting through informal interactional diversity.

/pdf/evaluating-the-rationale-for-affirmative-action-in-college-16u2l9j8mj.pdf

Evaluating the Rationale for Affirmative Action in College Admissions: Direct and Indirect Relationships between Campus Diversity and Gains in Understanding Diverse Groups

Many in higher education look to student affairs for leadership in diversity awareness and multicultural understanding, yet, successful campus initiatives cannot be sustained without commitment and participation by and from faculty, students, staff, and administrators The commitment and support to and for multicultural understanding will not materialize without visible proactive leadership from university presidents The commitment demonstrated by embracing and implementing diversity initiatives by presidents sends a strong message to higher education A primary goal of US colleges and universities is to provide students with well-rounded, sound educational programs so that they may live rewarding and productive lives (Maimon & Garcia, 1997) Over the past two decades, higher education has placed more emphasis on teaching students to live and interact in a pluralistic and global society (DelGuidice, 1997; Dembner, 1995) The rise in overt racial and anti-Semitic acts on college campuses during the 80's (Mabry, 1989; Steele, 1989; Hawkins, 1989) and the repeal of affirmative action programs during the 90's (Healy, 1997; Cannon, 1997; Rodriquez, 1996; and Wright, 1996) make this an important issue for the twenty-first century Despite efforts in the last two decades to create racial harmony on campuses, the debates over affirmative action programs, and informal campus desegregation clearly demonstrate failure to create an academic community that fosters cultural tolerance, respect, pluralism, and social, as well as, scholarly interaction (Tucker, 1995; Eastman, 1993) Plans to increase minority presence on college campuses need to be thoroughly and carefully reviewed Policies that relate to diversity, are not universally pursued on college campuses, and constitute one of the most controversial issues in higher education (Astin, 1993) Student and faculty advocates of multiculturalism are frustrated with a perception that stems from the belief that although institutions make statements endorsing diversity initiatives, they seem unwilling or reluctant to change their institutional infrastructures to make them more inclusionary (Ross,1992) Early initiatives at diversity awareness and multiculturalism often conveyed to minority students an expectation that they had to assimilate to an existing norm Students challenged this assimilationist model They sought acknowledgment, in both campus programming and curriculum, that there are multiple cultural traditions in this country and that all have value Without recognizing the American culture as a mosaic of many ethnic cultures, multicultural awareness programming will have little impact on the functioning of the university community The contribution of ethnic cultures should be included throughout the curriculum in higher education Since this is not the norm, there is a narrow perspective on the development of what is known as the American culture, resulting in very few students and faculty members having any knowledge of the contributions made by ethnic minorities to America's economic, social and political development (Selman, 1992) Thus, the debate over and desire for a more culturally diverse curriculum stems not from concerned faculty members or administrators, but rather from minority students, who believe that the views of their majority counterparts are rooted in a lack of knowledge of non-Eurocentric history Higher education is at a crossroads It must decide which direction it will take to maintain its image as an oasis for the dissemination of culture, scholarship, and the development of character and citizenship Demographic changes in this country will have a tremendous impact on college enrollment in the near future The student population of public schools is changing significantly as we move into the twenty-first century By the year 2020, approximately 39 percent of all school-age children will come from minority groups …

Campus Diversity: Presidents as Leaders.

This analysis of the circumstances of alcohol and other drug use among African-American students at a predominantly White university indicated that the majority of these students drank in a responsible manner. Other drug use was almost nonexistent. Strong peer disapproval was exhibited toward drug users and alcohol abusers. Counselors dealing with such problems must be cognizant of the multicultural aspects of these behaviors.

Alcohol and Other Drug Use among African-American Students in a Southern University.

In our zeal to deal with alcohol and drug abuse, we may have a distorted picture of what the majority of college students actually think about alcohol and drug use. Students in this study done at a public university located in the Deep South report being generally intolerant of substance abuse. Language: en

Campus attitudes toward alcohol and drugs in a deep southern university.

Perceptions and Experiences of African-American Student Affairs Professionals.

The concept of shared authority has been increasingly accepted in higher education, particularly due to movements toward private sector business practices such as Total Quality Management and Continuous Quality Improvement. The net result for student affairs administrators has been attention to the involvement of various constituents in the decision- making process. Only recently has this attention begun to focus on traditionally disenfranchised constituents, including African American and Native American and international faculty members. The current study allowed these individuals to comment on the decision-making process and their involvement. Outcomes were primarily directed at respecting faculty efforts and individual accountability. Higher education institutions, in creating, refining, and transmitting knowledge, draw their strength from the variations of thought and the degree of growth demonstrated by both faculty and students. This variation often causes conflict among disciplines, but also provides a margin of intellectual tolerance and excellence, allowing institutions to develop and evolve into their desired role of academic excellence. Consistent with Howard Bowen's (1981) laws of higher education finance, institutions continue to work to achieve educational excellence, prestige, and affluence as their primary objectives. In this work, institutional administration becomes the touchstone of differentiating between institutions with and institutions without a vision of integrity, quality, and excellence. Questions about the effectiveness of academic administration have grown increasingly difficult to ignore, particularly in light of private sector attention to the concepts of teaming and shared decision making. Higher education has a tradition of involving faculty in governance activities. This governance model has differentiated between the academic and academic-support functions of the institution (Birnbaum, 1988). In particular, divisions of student affairs, working independently and with senior institutional administrators, have just begun to integrate the concepts of shared authority with faculty into decision making. The involvement of faculty-namely diverse faculty groups such as Hispanics, Internationals, African Americans, and Native Americans-in student affairs governance is an area that needs both academic and practitioneroriented research and policy development. The growing diversity of the college student population, coupled with the need to address opportunity in senior administrative ranks, provides a strong justification for exploring broader, more inclusive decision-making. Therefore, the purpose for conducting the current study was twofold: first, to examine how minority faculty view their roles in student affairs governance, and second, to examine what these faculty believe would be an ideal shared involvement in student affairs. Faculty Involvement in Student Affairs Administration The essence of effective student affairs administration is related to the ability of individuals to create and direct programs which consider and involve student-development theory. Although the administrative dimensions of the senior-level student affairs officer's position have become increasingly important and reflected in graduate school training, the concept of effectiveness relates primarily to the ability of the Student Affairs divisions to build and support an environment conducive to both student learning and student growth (Miller & Nadler, 1996). Although not a new concept, the American College Personnel Association, in pursuit of how student affairs professionals can enhance the learning environment of the college campus, included the involvement of faculty as a key to success in their Student Learning Imperative, which was developed to "stimulate discussion and debate on how student affairs professionals can intentionally create the conditions that enhance student learning and personal development" (Ashlock, 1996, p. …

Diversity in Decision Making: Minority Faculty Involvement in Governance.

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