The Internet of Things (IoT) plays a vital role in interconnecting physical and virtual objects that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies intending to connect and exchange data with devices and systems around the globe over the Internet. With a multitude of features to offer, IoT is a boon to mankind, but just as two sides of a coin, the technology, with its lack of securing information, may result in a big bane. It is estimated that by the year 2030, there will be nearly 25.44 billion IoT devices connected worldwide. Due to the unprecedented growth, IoT is endangered by numerous attacks, impairments, and misuses due to challenges such as resource limitations, heterogeneity, lack of standardization, architecture, etc. It is known that almost 98% of IoT traffic is not encrypted, exposing confidential and personal information on the network. To implement such a technology in the near future, a comprehensive implementation of security, privacy, authentication, and recovery is required. Therefore, in this paper, the comprehensive taxonomy of security and threats within the IoT paradigm is discussed. We also provide insightful findings, presumptions, and outcomes of the challenges to assist IoT developers to address risks and security flaws for better protection. A five-layer and a seven-layer IoT architecture are presented in addition to the existing three-layer architecture. The communication standards and the protocols, along with the threats and attacks corresponding to these three architectures, are discussed. In addition, the impact of different threats and attacks along with their detection, mitigation, and prevention are comprehensively presented. The state-of-the-art solutions to enhance security features in IoT devices are proposed based on Blockchain (BC) technology, Fog Computing (FC), Edge Computing (EC), and Machine Learning (ML), along with some open research problems.

State-of-the-Art Review on IoT Threats and Attacks: Taxonomy, Challenges and Solutions

The increasing prevalence of IoT devices has brought about numerous security challenges due to their relatively simple internal architecture and low-powered hardware warranted by their small footprint requirement. As there are billions of IoT devices in use today, the sheer number of such devices pose a great security challenge as they are often constrained by a number of hardware and software limitations in addition to being designed with a focus on convenience, ease of use, mass production, and low cost, rather than security. The seemingly exponentially increasing number of such devices make it harder to keep track of – and patch – insecure IoT devices. This paper explores the common security threats, attacks, and vulnerabilities relating to IoT devices and highlights the challenges associated with securing them against emerging security threats and cyberattacks. Due to their role as gateways to connected devices and susceptibility to forming botnets or facilitating man-in-the-middle attacks, IoT devices are a lucrative target for cybercriminals. The paper discusses various remediation and mitigation techniques that can be implemented to better secure IoT devices, including access control mechanisms, secure communication protocols, and regular updates and patches. By better understanding the security challenges associated with IoT devices and implementing effective mitigation techniques, individuals and businesses can ensure the safety, security, and privacy of their connected devices and networks. 

Securing IoT Devices Against Emerging Security Threats: Challenges and Mitigation Techniques

The prevalence of Internet of Things (IoT) systems deployment is increasing across various domains, from residential to industrial settings. These systems are typically characterized by their modest computational requirements and use of lightweight communication protocols, such as MQTT. However, the rising adoption of IoT technology has also led to the emergence of novel attacks, increasing the susceptibility of these systems to compromise. Among the different attacks that can affect the main IoT protocols are Denial of Service attacks (DoS). In this scenario, this paper evaluates the performance of six supervised classification techniques (Decision Trees, Multi-layer Perceptron, Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, Fisher Linear Discriminant and Bernoulli and Gaussian Naive Bayes) combined with the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) feature extraction method for detecting DoS attacks in MQTT networks. For this purpose, a real dataset containing all the traffic generated in the network and many attacks executed has been used. The results obtained with several models have achieved performances above 99% AUC.

Development of an Intelligent Classifier Model for Denial of Service Attack Detection

While the spreading of the Internet of Things continues beyond expectations, the security of networking technologies used in this context remains an open issue. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state of the art on the security of Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs), with a focus on Sigfox, LoRaWAN, and Narrowband Internet of Things. The paper covers five main areas: (1) security requirements and their implementation in these networks, such as authentication, encryption, access control, and key management; (2) categorization of attacks and threat modeling, with the identification of the attack vectors and the presentation of an attack categorization and analysis; (3) a detailed explanation of attacks documented on Sigfox, LoRaWAN, and Narrowband Internet of Things, examining the underlying vulnerabilities exploited, outlining potential consequences, and discussing countermeasures proposed to mitigate these attacks; (4) security enhancements proposed to address vulnerabilities in each network; (5) the integration of LPWANs with 5G and the consequent security challenges. This survey constitutes an important and missing resource for the study and the development of secure Internet of Things solutions based on Low Power Wide Area Networks, raising awareness of potential threats, and guiding future research efforts towards strengthening the security of these networks and of the broader IoT landscape. 

A comprehensive survey on the security of low power wide area networks for the Internet of Things

The rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT), now with billions of mainly wireless interconnected devices, has brought concerns and challenges regarding the security of IoT networks and devices, as they are often vulnerable to attacks. In this article, a measurement campaign is carried out to investigate the path loss experienced by a portable IoT hacking tool, known commercially as Flipper Zero™, when used in transmitter mode, to shed light on the maximum achievable distance at which an IoT device can still receive an eavesdropper’s signal above a minimum power level. The path loss measurements are performed in three different outdoor environments. The results show that the hacking tool transmitted signal can reach up to 15 meters with power above -90 dBm, which is still in the sensitivity range of many IoT devices, thus revealing potential vulnerabilities and security risks in real-world scenarios. 

Exploring the Path Loss of a Hacking Tool for Security Matters in the Internet of Things

Internet of Things (IoT) innovation brings many facilities to our lives by connecting personal computers, smart phones and other devices like dishwashers, fridges to one network. Most of these devices like sensors have limited computational power that does not allow the use of contemporary security precautions such as encryption that leads to the gap in security of IoT network. In this study Denial of Service (DoS) attacks were performed to see in which condition devices are during an attack. Our main goal is to measure energy consumption during an attack. For this, we prepared a testbed platform and observed the cpu usage of a device during the attack. Synchronization (SYN) flood attack and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) flood attack were performed.

Performing energy consuming attacks on IoT devices

In this survey we aim to outline possible attacks in IoT network and to propose possible solutions for them. Security issues were classified depending on the layers in IoT architecture. Despite of this classification, issues in these layers trigger whole system’s security. Solutions for them are presented, too. Therefore, we emphasized the need for such security solutions for further study.

Survey of Network Security Issues and Solutions for the IoT

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Performing energy consuming attacks on IoT devices

Survey of Network Security Issues and Solutions for the IoT