Calcium propionate is a safe and reliable food and feed additive. It can be metabolized and absorbed by humans and animals as a precursor for glucose synthesis. In addition, calcium propionate provides essential calcium to mammals. In the perinatal period of dairy cows, many cows cannot adjust to the tremendous metabolic, endocrine, and physiological changes, resulting in ketosis and fatty liver due to a negative energy balance (NEB) or milk fever induced by hypocalcemia. On hot weather days, cow feed (TMR or silage) is susceptible to mildew, which produces mycotoxins. These two issues are closely related to dairy health and performance. Perinatal period metabolic disease significantly reduces cow production and increases the elimination rate because it causes major glucose and calcium deficiencies. Feeding a diet contaminated with mycotoxin leads to rumen metabolic disorders, a reduced reproductive rate (increased abortion rate), an increased number of milk somatic cells, and decreased milk production, as well as an increased occurrence of mastitis and hoof disease. Propionic acid is the primary gluconeogenic precursor in dairy cows and one of the safest mold inhibitors. Therefore, calcium propionate, which can be hydrolyzed into propionic acid and Ca2+ in the rumen, may be a good feed additive for alleviating NEB and milk fever in the perinatal period of dairy cows. It can also be used to inhibit TMR or silage deterioration in hot weather and regulate rumen development in calves. This paper reviews the application of calcium propionate in dairy cows.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/8/1336/pdf

Research on the Applications of Calcium Propionate in Dairy Cows: A Review

Effect of calcium propionate level on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of feedlot ram lambs

The incidence of clinical endometritis in dairy cows postpartum is one of the important reasons for financial losses in the dairy industry. The costs of treatment, milk losses, infertility, repeated breeding, and high annual culling rate of dairy cows present immediate losses in case of treatment failure. The commonly used therapeutic methods for clinical endometritis have not been successful nor have given definitive solutions to overcome the complications of the disease in dairy cows. Therefore, it was necessary to propose an innovative treatment program to overcome the reasons for the failure and lack of effectiveness of the treatment of clinical endometritis. This was tackled in the current study; oxytetracycline with different concentrations, oxytetracycline 5% (OTCC5%), oxytetracycline 20% (OTCC20%), and oxytetracycline 20% nanoparticles (OTC-NPs) were used for the treatment of clinical endometritis. Diagnosis of clinical endometritis was based on the assessment of high serum concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines, acute phase protein, increased endometrium thickness, and intrauterine discharges with different degrees of echogenicity monitored by ultrasonography. Application of OTC-NPs revealed a decrease in serum concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α) and acute phase proteins compared to OTCC20% and OTCC5% groups. The improvement achieved by OTC-NPs may be attributed to the reduction of OTC particles into nano size which facilitates its tissue bioavailability, dispersion, penetration power to deeper tissues, and its more broad-spectrum activities. These activities were clearly apparent after the evacuation of uterine contents using a single dose of PGF2α. The OTC-NPs revealed a reduction in serum concentration of cytokines compared to OTCC20% and OTCC5% groups arranged as follows: 10.11, 25.45, 35.56 for IL-1; 99, 300, 319 for IL-6; 1.01, 4.40, 8.06 for CRP; and 46, 183, 266 for TNF-α. Furthermore, an increase in serum concentration of albumin (3.34) was obtained by OTC-NPs compared to OTCC5% (1.70). This improvement can be taken as evidence of liver resumption functions and inflammatory reactions. On the other side, globulin concentration recorded an increase like albumin and total proteins in OTC-NPs compared to others. A reduction in the endometrium thickness in OTC-NPs with the disappearance of intrauterine discharges was monitored by ultrasonography. This confirmed the subsiding of clinical endometritis in OTC-NPs group. Moreover, a significant improvement in conception and pregnancy rate in OTC-NPs compared to other groups were observed. 

/pdf/efficiency-of-conventional-and-nanoparticle-oxytetracycline-1w78z79f.pdf

Efficiency of conventional and nanoparticle oxytetracycline in treatment of clinical endometritis in postpartum dairy cows

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have become the predominant etiology of endometritis and thus require effective treatment approaches. We used ultrasonography coupled with clinical signs and presented complaints of reproductive issues to investigate the epidemiology, phylogenetic analysis, antimicrobial resistance, and development of novel therapeutics against Escherichia coli isolated from endometritis in bovine (n = 304 from 10 commercial dairy farms). The prevalence of bovine endometritis in this study was 43.75%, while among these, 72.18% samples were positive for E. coli. Nucleotide analysis performed through BLAST and MEGAX showed 98% similarity to the nucleotide sequence of the reference E. coli strain (accession number CP067311.1). The disk diffusion assay revealed pathogen resistance to most antibiotics. Pattern of MIC order of resistance was as follows: enrofloxacin < gentamicin < co-amoxiclav < streptomycin < amoxicillin < metronidazole < oxytetracycline. Field trials revealed the highest recovery rate (in terms of clearance of endometritis and establishment of pregnancy) in case of gentamicin + enrofloxacin (100%) and gentamicin alone (100%), followed by co-amoxiclav + gentamicin (84.61%), oxytetracycline alone (78.57%), and metronidazole + enrofloxacin (33.33%). Hence, the current study reported a higher prevalence of multidrug-resistant E. coli showing considerable similarity with reference strain, and finally, the effective response of novel antibiotics to treat cases.

Evidence-Based Tracking of MDR E. coli from Bovine Endometritis and Its Elimination by Effective Novel Therapeutics

Context Profitability of water buffalo systems depends on a calving interval (CI) 1684 kg); parity was categorised as parity 1, 2 and ≥ 3; and month of calving was grouped into three seasons: December–March, April–July, and August–November. Data were analysed using linear and logistic mixed models. Key results CI increased from 425.3 days (95% CI: 418.8–431.8 days) in group 1 to 463.3 days (95% CI: 456–470.6 days) in group 4 (P < 0.05), while the probability of having a CI ≤ 400 days decreased from 0.5 (95% CI: 0.46–0.54) to 0.26 (95% CI: 0.22–0.29), respectively (P < 0.05). CI decreased from 466 days (95% CI: 460.8–471.3 days) in parity 1 to 410.5 days (95% CI: 405.2–415.8 days) in parity ≥3, whereas the probability of a CI ≤ 400 days increased from 0.26 (95% CI: 0.24–0.29) to 0.51 (95% CI: 0.47–0.54) respectively (P < 0.05). Water buffaloes calving in August–November showed significantly shorter CI and, along with those calving between December–March, showed the highest probability of a CI ≤ 400 days. An interaction between milk yield at first lactation and parity on both outcomes was observed. Conclusions Shorter CI and higher probability of a CI <400 days were associated with lower milk yields at first lactation, higher parity and calving between August–November. Higher milk yield at first lactation affected negatively the reproductive performance of water buffaloes, especially at parity 1 and 2. Implications These results highlight the importance of adequate nutritional management to allow water buffaloes to cope with the challenge of the postpartum negative energy balance and have a calving interval less than 400 days.

Milk yield at first lactation, parity, and season of calving affect the reproductive performance of water buffalo cows

Eighteen primiparous Egyptian buffalo cows (Bubalus bubalis) at late pregnancy (last 8 weeks of gestation) with an average live body weight of 500±25 kg and aged 35±5 months were used to assess the effect of supplementation propylene glycol (PG) and calcium propionate (CP) as a source of energy on some productive traits of Primiparous dams and some metabolic parameters related to fertility. 
Animals were divided into three similar groups (6/each) based on live body weight (LBW), body condition scores (BCS), expected calving date. The experimental animal in the 1st group control (C), were drenched 3 liters of saline solution (Nacl 0.9%) without any other supplementation, while in the 2nd group (PG) were drenched 300 ml of propylene glycol dissolved in 3 liters of a saline solution and in the 3rd group (CP), animals supplemented with 335g of calcium propionate dissolved in 3 liters of a saline solution. All treatments were administered through esophagus via esophagus feeder tube twice/weekly throughout the experimental period. Animals were fed individually allowances of concentrate feed mixture (CFM), berseem hay and rice straw which were adjusted according to the physiological and productive stage according to N.R.C (1988).
 Live body weight of Primiparous buffaloes and their calves at birth, Drop of fetal membranes (hour), First estrus post-partum (day), the interval from calving to first estrus were recorded. Number of service per conception, days open, calving interval and frequency distribution (%) were also calculated. Blood samples were collected from all buffalo cows for measuring non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), glucose and Insulin concentration. 
Supplementation of (PG) and (CP) treatment revealed significant differences on live body weights, reproductive parameters as first estrus post partum, days open and number of service per conception and blood metabolites as NEFA, BUN and glucose concentration. In brief supplementation of (PG) and (CP) treatment during transition period to primiparous buffalo cows had a great impact on reproductive performance and some metabolic parameters related to fertility.

Impact of Supplementing Propylene Glycol and Calcium Propionate to Primiparous Buffalo Cows During the Late Gestation and Early Lactation Period on Reproductive Performance and Metabolic Parameters

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Impact of Supplementing Propylene Glycol and Calcium Propionate to Primiparous Buffalo Cows During the Late Gestation and Early Lactation Period on Reproductive Performance and Metabolic Parameters