Abstract: The understanding of knowledge can be impaired if it is isolated from the proper context. Despite the importance of contextual information, there has been limited support for utilizing context in current knowledge management and collaborative systems. This paper presents a knowledge context model, called KC-V, which facilitates the use of contextual information in virtual collaborative work. Four benefits of using KC-V are suggested: evolutionary accumulation of knowledge aligned with collaborative activities, supporting the virtual team lifecycle, improved understanding by rich navigation paths, and searching for knowledge with similar context. A web-based collaboration system called VWSS is developed using KC-V.

Abstract: Businesses that are involved in offshore software development often operate in a virtual project environment in which peer teams located at customer premise exchange project specifications with the offshore software development facility. To understand the complex issues in such a virtual project environment during the requirements definition phase of the software development cycle, we conducted an exploratory research study, involving 24 virtual teams based in Canada and India, working on defining business requirements for software projects, over a period of five weeks. The study indicates that trust between the teams and well-defined task structure positively influence the efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction level of global virtual teams.

Abstract: The implementation of global virtual teams presents modern organizations with significant challenges, such as a multicultural workforce and the use of information and communication technology. Cultural diversity increases teamwork complexity and may weaken a team's effectiveness and jeopardize its viability. Selection and implementation of appropriate information technology may facilitate group processes and overcome potential barriers created by team heterogeneity. This study illustrates how e-mail mitigates intercultural miscommunication. Interviews with 41 global virtual team members in nine countries, who were employed by a multinational corporation, were transcribed and analyzed. The use of e-mail improves language accuracy, mitigates intercultural miscommunication resulting from verbal differences among team members, and eliminates nonverbal differences. Only future studies can determine the extent of this mitigation.

Abstract: As organizations continue to globalize their operations, it will become evident that most organizations do not have the resources to ‘fully man’ operations throughout the world. Therefore, management will be examining organizational options that reduce the demand on an already depleted pool of global managers. One of the options being examined by companies is the global virtual team (GVT). These complex teams are being considered as a bridge mechanism to allow multinational organizations to expand rapidly without taxing present global managerial skills. This paper uses a theoretical foundation based upon competency theory as the motivation for the formation of GVTs and to explain how they function. Four critical capitals (i.e. human, social, political and cross-cultural) are deemed to be essential for effectiveness of GVT and are discussed in the paper. In addition, a process for assessing the stock of capital in a GVT team is also developed in the paper.

Abstract: Purpose – To explain how genres structure temporal coordination in virtual teams over time.Design/methodology/approach – The first year e‐mail archive of a small distributed software development start‐up was coded and analyzed and these primary data were complemented with interviews of the key participants and examination of notes from the weekly phone meetings.Findings – In this paper, it is found that members of a small start‐up organization temporally coordinated their dispersed activities through everyday communicative practices, thus accomplishing both the distributed development of a software system and the creation of a robust virtual team. In particular, the LC members used three specific genres – status reports, bug/error notifications, and update notifications – and one genre system – phone meeting management – to coordinate their distributed software development over time.Research limitations/implications – The study confirms the various suggestions from prior virtual team research that structu...

Abstract: This paper explores the effects of virtual development on product quality, from the viewpoint of 'conformance to specifications'. Virtual Development refers to the development of products by teams distributed across space, time, and organization boundaries (hence virtual teams). Specifically, causes of defect injection and non- or late-detection are explored. Because of the practical difficulties of obtaining hard project-specific defect data, an approach was taken that relied upon accumulated expert knowledge. The accumulated expert knowledge based approach was found to be a practical alternative to an in-depth defect causal analysis on a per-project basis. Defect injection causes are concentrated in the Requirements Specification phases. Thus defect dispersion is likely to increase, as requirements specifications are input for derived requirements specifications in multiple, related sub-projects. Similarly, a concentration of causes for the non- or late-detection of defects was found in the Integration Test phases. Virtual development increases the likelihood of defects in the end product because of the increased likelihood of defect dispersion, because of new virtual development related defect causes, and because causes already existing in co-located development are more likely to occur. The findings are important for virtual development environments and (1) allow further research focusing on a framework for lowering residual defects, and (2) give insights that can be used immediately by practitioners to devise strategies for lowering residual defects.

Abstract: This chapter attempts to address the need for more research on virtual team effectiveness and outlines an ecological theoretical framework that is applicable to virtual learning environments (VLE). Prior empirical studies on virtual team effectiveness used frameworks of traditional team effectiveness and mainly followed Hackman's normative model (input-process-output). We propose an ecological approach for virtual team effectiveness that accounts for team boundaries management, technology use, and external environment in VLE, properties which were previously either non-existent or contextual. The ecological framework suggests that three components, external environment, internal environment, and boundary management, reciprocally interact with effectiveness. The significance of the proposed framework is a holistic perspective that takes into account the complexity of the external and internal environment of the team. Furthermore, we address the needs for new pedagogical approaches in VLE.

Abstract: In this paper we discuss the role of silence within a virtual organising context. The paper raises issues related to the construction of silence in the virtual team context and the implications it has on team interactions. By drawing upon existing studies on virtual teams, we argue that members' silence may not always have negative effects on team performance and team relationships, but that silence is an embedded part of this environment as it reinforces the very nature of virtuality. The theoretical and practical significance of this study are discussed and implications for further research are identified.

Abstract: This paper reviews experiences from a research project into international collaborative learning, involving trials between virtual teams of students at Auckland University of Technology (AUT) and Uppsala University (UU) in Sweden. In this research-linked model of teaching, several issues have arisen, associated with motivating students to participate in a research project as an integral element of their learning. The literature on student motivation is briefly reviewed and related to observed student motivation over a two-year period of collaborative trials. Identifiable patterns of behaviour have emerged, for which some underlying causes can be discerned. While findings at this stage can be considered tentative in this complex environment, nonetheless we believe some light is shed on the process of motivation for such a model of learning. The paper concludes by outlining our proposed modifications to enhance student motivation in forthcoming collaborative trials.

Abstract: Given the growing use of virtual interaction in international business activities, business schools must provide students with experiential learning opportunities that prepare them to work in virtual organizations. This paper uses multiple case study methodology with analysis at the transaction level to analyze the dynamics of the virtual teams, and to compare international and domestic virtual team behavior. The paper also identifies the challenges of implementing international virtual teams for teaching international business and provides practical advice for faculty.

Abstract: This paper analyzes previous empirical investigations on leadership style in virtual team context. Inconsistencies were found in the prior studies: oversimplified comparison of transformational and transactional leadership and treating the two leadership styles as polar constructs. To overcome these drawbacks, approaching transformational and transactional behavior combinations at behavior component level is suggested. Also, specific propositions are raised about the effects of leadership behavior combinations under three important yet ignored contextual factors: media richness of communication technology, goal-frustrating events and leader-follower gender. This paper provides useful guidance for future virtual team leadership research as well as for organizations interested in developing virtual team leadership.

Abstract: Researchers have been attempting to identify the factors that contribute to virtual team success. Two virtual teams were studied over six-months using an interpretive approach and qualitative data collection techniques. The outcomes of these teams were outwardly very poor. Yet, team members considered themselves successful in relation to the circumstances in which they found themselves. The team members identified the factors they believed contributed to the outcomes and the rationale for why they were successful despite the outward appearances. The interpretive approach allowed for an exploration of the circumstances, and how these perspectives were derived. The cases indicate that working in distributed mode can be problematic if teamwork issues are not addressed, and a technological focus adopted.

Abstract: In this chapter, we adopt a sociotechnical systems approach to understand the challenges faced by members of an organizational unit that is not constrained by geographical, temporal, organizational, or national boundaries Specifically, we examine virtual team performance within the context of an open sociotechnical system, highlighting the effects that the technological subsystem (eg, collaborative information technology) and external environmental factors (eg, lack of colocation) have on the personnel subsystem (ie, virtual team members) within the organization The organizational psychology literature on group productivity, motivation, and shared mental models is reviewed to, first, better understand team performance within the context of distributed environments, and second, offer guidelines and interventions for organizational practice 2 Cuevas, Fiore, Salas and Bowers Copyright © 2004, Idea Group Inc Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc is prohibited VIRTUAL TEAMS AS SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS Despite their rising popularity, a number of issues exist surrounding how it is that virtual teams can productively coordinate their resources, activities, and information, often in dynamic and uncertain task environments (Fiore, Salas, Cuevas, & Bowers, in press1; Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson, 1998) With the structure of teams in organizations increasing in complexity to include both colocated and virtual team members, explicit linkages between theory and practice are critically needed to mitigate the negative effects that technologymediated interaction may have on virtual team productivity In this chapter, we attempt to integrate theories and principles from organizational psychology (eg, Steiner, 1972) with the sociotechnical systems approach (eg, Hendrick, 1997) to explore the unique challenges faced by this small, but growing, subset of teams A Sociotechnical Systems Approach to Virtual Team Performance The radical change in organizational structure brought about through advances in technology represents a critical challenge for the appropriate application of organizational psychology principles in system design Researchers and practitioners need to focus on system design issues not only at the individual or task level, but also at the team, and quite possibly, at the organizational levels This involves conducting a system-level analysis of the sociotechnical factors that interact to shape organizational outcomes and may hinder the attainment of organizational goals (Hendrick, 1997) These sociotechnical factors include the following: (a) the personnel subsystem, comprised of the organizational unit’s members; (b) the technological subsystem, which represents the technology available to the organizational unit; and (c) the relevant external environmental variables that act upon the organizational unit (Hendrick, 1997) The technological component, in particular, is a key mediating role, because with it, limits upon the system’s actions can be set and new demands can be created that must be reflected in the internal structure and goals of the organizational unit (Emery & Trist, 1960) Taken as a whole, these subsystems collectively represent the organizational unit as a sociotechnical system In addition, because this organizational unit acts on and is acted upon by external forces, it should more appropriately be referred to as an open sociotechnical system (Emery & Trist, 1960; Katz & Kahn, 1966) The organizational unit, therefore, can be viewed as a complex set of dynamically intertwined and interconnected elements, including inputs, processes (throughputs), outputs, feedback loops, and the environment in which it operates and interacts (Emery & Trist, 1960; Katz & Kahn, 1966) Virtual Teams as Sociotechnical Systems 3 Copyright © 2004, Idea Group Inc Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc is prohibited In distributed environments, the technological subsystem may potentially have a greater effect on team member interactions than would be expected in traditional colocated task environments For the most part, virtual teams rely primarily on electronic communication processes to work together both synchronously (eg, videoconferencing, Internet chat rooms) and asynchronously (eg, e-mail, bulletin boards) to accomplish their tasks (Avolio, Kahai, Dumdum, & Sivasubramanium, 2001) Such technology-mediated interactions may potentially alter team processes and performance For example, research in computersupported collaborative work emphasized the importance of team members’ abilities to monitor and track individual member’s actions and team members’ interactions, referred to as workspace awareness (Gutwin & Greenberg, 1998, in press) Similarly, research on performance in virtual environments highlights the need for telepresence (the degree to which contextual factors typically present in colocated groups, such as voice, gesture, and body language, are found with distributed groups) and teledata (the team and task artifacts, such as shared workspaces, that require effective collaboration) (eg, Anderson, Smallwood, MacDonald, Mullin, Fleming, & O’Malley, 2000; Draper, Kaber, & Usher, 1998; Greenberg, 1991) The term social presence (de Greef & Ijsselsteijn, 2000) was used to describe how collaboration technology can adequately capture a sense of social interaction We argue that technology-mediated interactions increase the level of abstraction forced upon teams — a phenomenon referred to as team opacity (for a detailed discussion, see Fiore et al, in press) Essentially, team opacity describes the experiences of increased ambiguity and artificiality (ie, the unnatural quality) associated with interaction in distributed environments This decreased awareness of team members’ actions, resulting from the distributed organizational structure, creates an environment lacking in the rich visual, auditory, and social array of cues normally experienced in colocated team member interaction, potentially altering the team processes that lead to workspace awareness, social presence, and other related constructs Moreover, by limiting the use of implicit coordination and communication strategies, team opacity may further negatively alter team member interactions and impede the development of positive team attitudes (eg, cohesion, trust) that are integral to successful team evolution and performance (eg, Morgan, Salas, & Glickman, 1993) Fiore et al (in press) explored these factors within the context of a sociotechnological framework they labeled a distributed coordination space The primary components of this framework are composed of the attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions of virtual teams that may emerge at various phases of interaction among team members In particular, Fiore et al (in press) suggested that these factors occur not only during in-process interaction but also during preand postprocess interactions Specifically, whereas in-process interaction 4 Cuevas, Fiore, Salas and Bowers Copyright © 2004, Idea Group Inc Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc is prohibited occurs during actual task execution, pre-process interaction involves preparatory pre-task behaviors (eg, project planning session), where initial shared expectations are created in anticipation of team interaction (Fiore, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Wittenbaum, Vaughan, & Stasser, 1998) Similarly, postprocess interactions would include post-task reflection on performance (eg, after-action review, see Smith-Jentsch, Zeisig, Acton, & McPherson, 1998) Such antecedent or consequent behaviors may be critical to team development and the successful execution of team processes Here, following a sociotechnical systems approach, we expand on two subcomponents of the distributed coordination space framework, specifically, team attitudes and behaviors We examine virtual team performance within the context of an open sociotechnical system, analyzing the effects that the technological subsystem (eg, collaborative information technology) and external environmental factors (eg, lack of colocation) have on the personnel subsystem (ie, virtual team members) within the organization The organizational psychology literature on group productivity, motivation, and shared mental models is reviewed in order for us to better understand performance within distributed environments, highlighting how these theories can be applied to overcome the difficulties that may arise from this increasingly important organizational structure We conclude with guidelines and interventions for organizational practice Figure 1: Conceptual framework of group productivity in distributed environments Team Performance Combination Processes Motivation Shared Mental Models Resources

Abstract: This paper introduces a newComputational organizational analysis and design model, Called the Virtual Team Alliance (VTA), that builds on the Virtual Design Team (VDT) (Jin and Levitt, 1996). VTA extends Galbraith's framework implemented in VDT in two ways: (1) it addresses less routine tasks with some flexibility in how they are performed, and (2) it treats project participants as teleological professionals with potentially incongruent goals. Because tasks in the VTA model are flexible, differences in goals may influence which solution approach project participants prefer; thus, goal incongruencyCan have profound implications for the performance of project teams. We describe how VTA actorsComprise aComplex system that is endowed with fragments ofCanonical information-processing micro-behavior. TheCanonical micro-behaviors in VTA include exception generation, monitoring, selective delegation of authority, searching for alternatives,Clarifying goals, steamrolling, and politicking. The VTA model simulates the micro-levelCommunication andCoordination behavior of actors within the organization, including the impact of goal incongruency between individual actors, in order to determine the emergent, aggregate project behavior and performance. To Galbraith's sociological analysis, based on information-processing "organizational physics," we add new "organizationalChemistry" notions based on social psychological and economic agency theories.

Abstract: This paper explores teaming and its cultivation in senior capstone design projects to better prepare students for occupational interaction with other professionals, clients, and management to solve complex or open-ended problems. Teaming is deemed an important skill for engineers, by organizations employing engineers and other professionals. In the global marketplace organizations that value and capitalize on these skills can be more agile and competitive. The impact of current and future trends on teaming, including outsourcing and globalization, are discussed in terms of non-technical skills required for practicing engineers and the preparation of new engineers. Parallels between senior design projects and actual industry projects are drawn to highlight the key personal interaction skills and tools required for success. Examples of successful student teams and professional teams are presented for discussion. Measurements of project and teaming success by industry and professional organizations are presented. Topics include: traditional, global and virtual team structures emphasizing the nontechnical aspects necessary for modern teams including, team communication, diversity and cultural aspects, problem resolution, and other elements necessary for project success.

Abstract: Due to geographic dispersion and reliance on technology-mediated communication, developing collaborative capital can be a challenge in a virtual team. Knowledge sharing is one form of collaborative capital that has been identified as critical to virtual team success. This chapter develops a theoretical model that proposes that shared leadership in virtual teams is positively related to knowledge sharing between team members, and that this relationship will be partially mediated by trust. The model also shows that a team's degree of reliance on technology-mediated communication will moderate the relationships in the model.

Abstract: Whilst virtual organizations are enabled via existing and emerging technologies, they remain principally human constructs. The authors argue that the success of the VO throughout its lifecycle, from creation to dissolution, relies on its capability to create and sustain value. In this context, the human capital of the VO, and more generally, its ‘intangible assets’ play a determinant role. Thus the socio-organizational ‘equation’ consists of a combination of technology, culture, and organization, in which issues including trust, confidentiality, knowledge sharing, etc., must be blended successfully toward the shared VO purpose. This chapter explores the social and organizational aspects of virtual organizations and highlights important issues that need addressing in order to negotiate the necessary transition from a traditional to a knowledge driven organization that can engage effectively in knowledge driven alliances characterized by virtual business modes.

Abstract: Socialization of newcomers in traditional organizations has been given considerable attention in the literature. However, little attention has been paid to how individuals are socialized in virtual teams. Examined in this chapter is the critical stage of organizational assimilation for newcomers in virtual teams and how this stage differs for traditional organizational socialization. Specifically, we address newcomer relationship development and virtual team metamorphosis. Recommendations for effective virtual team socialization are offered as well as areas for future research. INTRODUCTION The sophistication of communication technology and the globalization of organizations greatly accelerated the growth and importance of virtual teams in the workplace. Teleworking and virtual teams are becoming more commonplace for several reasons — often it is more efficient, less expensive, and less technologically difficult to organize geographically dispersed workers. When employees work in teams and communicate only via technology rather than face to face, the socialization process may be altered because of the technological mediation of communication. This chapter appears in the book, Virtual and Collaborative Teams: Process, Technologies and Practice, edited by Susan H. Godar and Sharmila Pixy Ferris. Copyright © 2004, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200, Hershey PA 17033-1240, USA Tel: 717/533-8845; Fax 717/533-8661; URL-http://www.idea-group.com IDEA GROUP PUBLISHING 116 Picherit-Duthler, Long and Kohut Copyright © 2004, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. It is well known that communication is important to socialization into teams. For example, early in a job, newcomers concentrate on gathering information, learning about the tasks necessary for the job, and clarifying their roles in the team. To acquire information and learn about the new setting, newcomers frequently rely on a variety of sources within the team, such as peers, supervisors, and mentors (Miller & Jablin, 1991; Schein, 1988). How well an individual is socialized into a team can determine his or her success within it and, ultimately, the team’s success in achieving goals and objectives. Team socialization and the communication practices associated with that socialization have been researched extensively since Jablin (1982) first explored the intricate process. Socialization occurs when a member of a team acquires the knowledge, behavior, and attitude needed to participate fully as a member of that team. Jablin (1987) described the stages of socialization that occur as one enters an organization as anticipatory socialization, organizational assimilation (encounter and metamorphosis), and organizational exit. Unlike the abundance of research in traditional team socialization, research in the area of virtual team socialization is only now beginning to emerge (Ahuja & Galvin, 2003). The focus of this chapter is to explore how information technologies mediate communication in virtual teams, and, as a result, impact socialization processes. A virtual team is defined as a group of geographically and organizationally dispersed workers brought together across time and space through information and communication technologies (DeSanctis & Poole, 1997; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; Lipnack & Stamps, 1997). The challenge for virtual team socialization lies with the fact that team members communicate primarily via electronic mail, telephone, and videoconferencing or computer conferencing. Because most of the communication in virtual teams is mediated, the processes involved in socialization of virtual teams may be different from traditional faceto-face (F2F) teams. However, organizations seldom differentiate between building virtual and traditional teams, assuming that the stages of socialization for colocated teams are the same as those for virtual teams. Mediated communication is different than F2F communication. For example, interaction in mediated groups appears more impersonal, task-oriented, less friendly, and more businesslike (Rice & Love, 1987; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). In addition, communication technologies can limit and complicate the process of developing virtual teams. For example, Mark (2001) stated that communication delays and awkwardness in turn taking can impact the communication process of team building. However, rather than viewing computermediated communication as limiting, Walther (1996) suggested that technologies can facilitate communication by providing opportunities for anonymity, 24-hour access, and archiving. Thus, the communication technologies transform the critical role that interpersonal communication plays in the socialization of virtual teams. 16 more pages are available in the full version of this document, which may be purchased using the "Add to Cart" button on the publisher's webpage: www.igi-global.com/chapter/newcomer-assimilation-virtualteam-socialization/30800

Abstract: As virtual teams become common place in organizations as well as educational institutions concern over preparing members to work more effectively in a virtual environment raises. There are many factors that can affect how well team members communicate and how well they work together. Two of these factors are relational links and trust. Both of these factors are summarized from the current literature and we report on a study that compared training techniques based on both of these factors. Forty eight teams interacted over a semester to work on a series of tasks. Two different training programs were established based on the relational links and trust literature and administered to subsets of teams. A comparison was made on the effectiveness of each of the training techniques as well as compared to no training.

Abstract: We present a vision of how ambient intelligent environments may be used in future to support the emergency services during first response to a major incident. A futuristic scenario is presented where, for each of the emergency services, Ambient Intelligence (AmI) technologies are used to support communication amongst the members of a virtual team. AmI is further used to enable cross service communication and coordination, e.g., between police, firefighters and ambulance teams, which may include transborder and transnational cooperation. The application therefore is an example of extended enterprise computing systems incorporating inter-organisational and international dimensions. It therefore addresses the themes of (AmI enabled) Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to support inter-enterprise collaboration and collaboration between virtual teams. We examine the future and emerging technologies needed to realize this vision of ambient intelligent support for the rescue services. One of the emerging technologies is ad hoc networking. In this paper we focus on the possibilities and challenges raised by combining fixed infrastructure networks with ad hoc networks to support ambient intelligent services for major incident management.

Abstract: With the recent acceleration of market dynamics, more flexible ways of collaboration need to be put in the place of traditional static supply chains. “Smart Business Networks” (SBN) are regarded an appropriate instrument to meet the challenges of future competition and better innovation management performance. Their temporary, flexible and dynamic nature requires the necessity to quickly exploit synergies between different enterprises to realize innovative common business objectives. Creating new ideas, transforming them into a product or service, and successfully bringing them to the market is a challenge that is yet difficult to manage within single enterprises where several players within one singular organization need to be streamlined to the common objective (O’Sullivan 2002). Innovation management is a major issue to make industrial collaboration in enterprise networks of companies more successful (Hauschildt 1993; Kleinschmidt et al., 1996). Within a collaborative network, the success of innovation processes highly depends on an efficient network government (Lentz 2003, Eschenbaecher 2004): Different intra-enterprise innovation processes run by several players from different organizations, sharing different company cultures and information systems, need to be harmonized to successfully realize an innovative idea.

Abstract: This paper reports findings of a survey of practitioners at a major global IS services firm. The survey sought to explore three questions: (1) Do VT leaders take on a role as technology facilitator, intervening to improve team use of ICT?; (2) If so, can VT leaders’ technology facilitation role have a critical, positive impact on team success?; and (3) How many ICTs does a VT use and how important they? Evidence was found to answer the first two questions in the affirmative and to address the third. Some interesting leads suggested by the data are explored.

Abstract: This paper reports on a study of the "switching model" of virtual organization. A computer program (voSwitch) has been developed and implemented as a first approximation to a quantitative version of the model. The switching model interprets virtual organization as a management paradigm, rather than as a particular form or type of organization. In this view, "virtuality" is a matter of degree rather than of kind. That is to say, some fonctions, processes or structures within a given firm or enterprise may be organized virtually and others not. The switching model captures the flexibility and leverage that can be achieved when managers maintain a strict logical separation between the requirements of a task and the means for satisfying those requirements. Switching is an important element in many definitions of virtual organization in the literature and thus the model offers a useful theoretical framework for empirical investigation of hypotheses about virtual organization. The research described in this paper has two major objectives: 1) to develop a precise, quantitative framework for the switching model of virtual organization that helps to specify the model's domain of applicability; and 2) to demonstrate a quantitative instrument that shows the utility of the switching model and lays the foundation for development of a decision-support tool. INTRODUCTION Advances in information technology and the emergence of the Internet as a new venue for commerce have been accompanied by innovations in organization and management. Extensive use of computers and communications technologies appears to have created opportunities to develop radically new management strategics. Common to many descriptions of these innovations is the adjective "virtual." Terms such as "virtual organization" (Mowshowitz 1986), "virtual corporation" (Davidow and Malone 1992; Malone and Davidow 1992; Byrne 1993), "virtual team" (Hammer and Champy, 1993; Ishaya and Macauley 1999), "virtual community" (Rheingold 1993), "virtual office" (Giuliano 1982), "virtual classroom" (Hiltz 1986, 1994; Hiltz and Wellman 1997) and others have appeared in the literature since the early 1980s. The more or less independent adoption of "virtual" by so many different scholars suggests there is a common thread linking the different innovations together. Thus one is justified in seeking a common denominator among the disparate definitions that make use of the qualifier "virtual." It is not uncommon to have many different descriptions and analyses of a complex, new phenomenon and virtual organization is no exception. A strong contender for the title of common denominator for these descriptions and analyses is the switching model of virtuality (Mowshowitz 1994, 1997a, 1997b, 1999, 2002), explained below. This model serves to unify the disparate notions of virtuality or virtual organization currently in use among researchers and practitioners. In addition it offers a framework for empirical investigation of hypotheses about virtual organization. The switching model interprets virtual organization as a management paradigm, rather than as a particular form or type of organization. In this view, "virtuality" is a matter of degree rather than of kind. That is to say, some functions, processes or structures within a given firm or enterprise may be organized virtually and others not. The switching model captures the flexibility and leverage that can be achieved when managers maintain a strict logical separation between the requirements of a task and the means for satisfying those requirements. Despite its widely recognized importance as an innovation in management and organization, there is a dearth of systematic research on the theory and practice of virtual organization. Descriptions and case studies abound, but apart from the switching model, there are no operational definitions of virtual organization. This model has been shown (Mowshowitz 1997a) to capture the essence of many descriptive or informal definitions (Sieber and Griese 1999) and lends itself to the formulation of empirically testable hypotheses about virtual organization As a socio-technical phenomenon, virtual organization has much in common with the role of division of labor in industrialization (Mowshowitz 2002). …

Abstract: Information Systems researchers are often concerned with empirical questions spanning more than one level of analysis. For example, virtual teams research provides a good illustration because such teams are inherently hierarchical entities involving the situated nature of individuals within teams. Despite the importance of multilevel research questions to Information Systems research, the literature has yet to fully engage appropriate techniques for multilevel investigations. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) as a statistical tool that can appropriately test cross-level relationships, we provide an illustration of the differences and advantages of using a multilevel technique over ordinary least squares (OLS) regression. Using data from a study of global virtual teams, we demonstrate that substantive research conclusions differ based on the use of HLM versus OLS regression. Using HLM, we find a significant relationship between individual level task liking and affective commitment; we also find a significant relationship between individual level task liking and satisfaction with the virtual team. When testing the moderating effects of team characteristics, we found a significant positive moderating effect of team work processes on the relationship between task liking and satisfaction. We conclude with recommendations for future research and provide a comparison of empirical techniques available for IS researchers testing relationships at single and multiple levels of analysis. INTRODUCTION Information Systems (IS) is the discipline concerned with all aspects of Information Technology (IT), from design and development to understanding technology use and the events that occur when technology interacts with social settings, i. e., people, management, organizations, business processes (Lee 1999). Phenomena of interest to IS researchers are often cross-level or multilevel in nature. For example, IS researchers study individuals' technology adoption and use, and the impact of contextual attitudes on this process (Carlson and Zmud 1999; Markus 1994); they also investigate technology mediated learning and the impact of different educational technologies on individual learners' performance (Alavi and Leidner 2001; Piccoli, Ahmad and Ives 2001). Despite the many areas of IS research concerned with multilevel phenomena, appropriate research methods such as hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) have been slow to be adopted by many MIS researchers (See Ang, Slaughter and Ng 2002 for a recent exception). HLM is a multilevel statistical method employed in groups' research that appropriately tests for cross-level effects (Bryk and Raudenbush 1992; Hofmann 1997). A search of the top two outlets for IS research, MIS Quarterly and Information Systems Research, over the last 10 years revealed that no study used HLM to analyze group research data. This finding is troublesome because HLM can be a more appropriate multilevel technique to use than other more common techniques such as analysis of variance (ANOVA) or OLS regression (Hofmann 1997; Hox 2002; Raudenbush and Bryk 2002; Snijders and Bosker 1999). Using an inappropriate multilevel technique can create a variety of problems, from a violation of the statistical assumptions underlying techniques normally used, e. g., OLS regression, to increased chance of Type I error (Bryk and Raudenbush 1992). More importantly, substantive conceptual questions may be addressed inappropriately or not at all for want of a technique suited to adequately model multilevel data. While HLM has been gaining momentum in other disciplines such as education (Cooperman 1999; Griffith 2001; Raudenbush and Bryk 2002; Wong, Young and Fraser 1997), management (Bloom 1999; Bloom and Milkovich 1998; Griffin 1997; Haberfeld, Semyonov and Addi 1998; Hofmann 1997; Kidwell, Mossholder and Bennett 1997; Naumann and Bennett 2000; Van der Sluis 2002; Wech 2002) and health sciences (Alexander, Lichtenstein, Jinnett and D'Aunno 1996; Rosenbeck, Stolar and Fontana 2000), information systems scholars have been slower in embracing this technique (see Ang, Slaughter and Ng 2002 and Hoegl, Parboteeah, and Munson 2003 for exceptions). …

Abstract: This paper outlines and presents the findings of an experiment that was performed using virtual teams. Two classes ? one at Louisiana State University and one at Auburn University ? were divided up into face-toface teams and virtual teams. The virtual teams had members from both schools, and the members used information technology to prepare a write-up and a presentation by analyzing the Chick-Fil-A case study. The authors spent a class period teaching students how to use a virtual meeting tool, Microsoft? NetMeeting. The goals of the experiment included comparing virtual team performance with face-to-face teams, the time spent on the project by both types of teams, team members? understanding of the purpose and mission, and team members satisfaction with their experience. The results indicate that face-to-face teams were more successful in all areas. The paper provides recommendations on how to run virtual teams in the future. Additionally, the paper explains what a virtual team is and provides examples of virtual teams, the effectiveness of virtual teams, and the criteria to measure success of teamworking.

Abstract: This paper examines the nature of virtual teams and their place in the networked economy. It presents a framework for categorising virtual teams and argues that fundamental changes have taken place in the business environment which force people and organisations to operate in 'two spaces' simultaneously: the physical space and the electronic space. It highlights some of the issues of trust and identity that exist in virtual teams and argues that, due to certain barriers, only a small proportion of these teams reach a satisfactory level of performance. Using the evidence from two recent sets of studies, it highlights some of the barriers to effective virtual team working and demonstrates the critical importance of trust and social bonding to the functioning of such teams. It reports on the use of a 'Community of Practice' in a virtual team and argues that this may provide one mechanism for overcoming some of the barriers. Finally, it argues that many of the problems stem from a lack of understanding of the new geography of the information economy and that, rather than accepting the notion that 'geography no longer matters', continued efforts must be made to understand the relationship between the physical world in which we live and the electronic world of virtual team working.

Abstract: This presentation reports on an intercultural virtual team project conducted by students in two management communication courses, one at the University of Delaware (USA) and one at McGill University (Canada). The goal of the partnership between the two classes was to enhance students' ability to collaborate across cultures using a variety of technologies for collaboration, a skill they need in order to succeed in the increasingly global and technologically mediated environment of work. Each team, which included students from both universities, compared communication practices in a company or type of business that exists both in the United States and in Canada. Their task was to analyze how the practices reflect and shape the particular environments in which the businesses operate. During the project they advanced and monitored their work through different technologies, including blogs, email, and a designated collaborative Web-based workspace, and they produced several genres of documents reporting their achievements. This presentation first analyzes the advantages, vulnerabilities, and faultlines of virtual intercultural teamwork as students experienced them. We then describe conditions that help teams overcome the risks of virtual work and assess how well we were able to create these conditions in the courses.