Abstract: Abstract 1. Introduction Structural categories of grammar (such as clitic, affix, compound, adjective, pronoun, dative, subject, passive, diphthong, coronal) have to be posited by linguists and by children during acquisition. This would be easier if they simply had to choose from a list of pre-established categories. However, existing proposals for what such a list might be are still heavily based on the Latin and English grammatical tradition. Thus, descriptive linguists still have no choice but to adopt the Boasian approach of positing special language-particular categories for each language. Theorists often resist it, but the crosslinguistic evidence is not converging on a smallish set of possibly innate categories. On the contrary, almost every newly described language presents us with some “crazy” new category that hardly fits existing taxonomies. Although there is thus no good evidence for pre-established categories, linguists still often engage in category-assignment controversies such as “Is the Tagalog ang-phrase a subject or a topic?”, “Is German er a pronoun or a determiner?”, “Are Mandarin Chinese property words adjectives or verbs?”, or “Is the Romanian definite article a clitic or a suffix?”

Abstract: Abstract To venture into explanation of political action we need some map of our basic options: what kinds of explanations are out there? Even advanced students and scholars can find the landscape difficult to chart. We confront a bewildering maze of partial typologies, contrasting uses of terms, and debate over what counts as explanation. This book makes an argument about the most useful first cut into explanations of action. It illustrates the map with reference to political examples and a wide range of political science literature, but the scheme applies even more broadly across the social sciences and history. Common terms form the sectors of the map: structural, institutional, ideational, and psychological logics. This book's novelties lie in arguments about how to best define these terms. It narrows them into distinct mechanisms, arriving at basic segments of causal logic into which all explanations of action can be broken down. It also makes them compatible, however, such that we could imagine a world in which all operated while debating how much each caused any given action. Four benefits follow. The typology directs our attention to the most basic debates about what causes what. Its framework is systematic and exhaustive, bounding our explanatory universe. It defines our main approaches in ways that facilitate both competition and combination. Lastly, it leads to revisions of prevailing views on philosophy of science and research design to encourage more open and rigorous debates. Graduate students will find no other overviews of comparable scope and precision. Scholars of all theoretical inclinations will encounter provocative challenges to their views of theorizing and use of terms.

Abstract: 1. TYPOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE. Traditionally, typology was used as an alternative method in pursuing one of the same goals as generative grammar: to determine the limits of possible human languages and, thereby, to contribute to a universal theory of grammar. The paradigm result was the absolute universal law that would rule out as linguistically impossible what would seem logically imaginable, e.g. a language with a gender distinction exclusively in the first person singular. Over the past decade, typology has begun to emancipate itself from this goal and to turn from a method into a full-fledged discipline, with its own research agenda, its own theories, its own problems. What has reached center-stage is a fresh appreciation of linguistic diversity in its own right, and the new goal of typology is the development of theories that explain why linguistic diversity is the way it is — a goal first made explicit by Nichols’s (1992) call for a science of population typology, parallel to population biology. Instead of asking “what’s possible?”, more and more typologists ask “what’s where why?” Asking “what’s where” targets universal preferences as much as geographical or genealogical skewings, and results in probabilistic theories stated over sampled distributions. Asking “why” is based on the premises that (a) typological distributions are historically grown and (b) that they are interrelated with other distributions. Understanding distributions as historically grown goes back at least to Greenberg’s (1965; 1978) and Givon’s (1979) early calls for diachrony in typology and means that synchronic distributions, whether universal preferences or geographical clusterings, are seen as the product of type transitions and diachronic processes in general (also see Bybee 1988 and Hall 1988 for strong argumentation in this direction). It is a matter of current debate whether universal preferences result from preference principles that guide (or ‘select’) the result of diachrony (as assumed by, e.g. Nettle 1999, Kirby 1999, or Haspelmath 1999) or from locally motivated preferred pathways of change (as in the work of, e.g. Croft 2000, Bybee 2001, Blevins 2004, and in much of grammaticalization theory). On either view, the current distribution is understood as the product of history and the objects of inquiry are probabilities of change and the principles behind them. Understanding typological distributions as interrelated with, and partly grounded in other distributions reflects the finding that linguistic structures tend to be systema-

Abstract: Faculty-student interaction is an important component of the undergraduate experience. Our year-long qualitative study explored the complex nature of faculty-student interaction outside the classroom. Our resulting typology identifies five types of interaction: disengagement, incidental contact, functional interaction, personal interaction, and mentoring. This typology provides researchers with a new lens through which they can examine faculty-student interaction and suggests that even non-academic interactions between students and professors can be meaningful to students. Finally, the typology will allow faculty, staff, and administrators to improve current practices and develop initiatives that build bridges between faculty and students outside the classroom.

Abstract: Main Messages 3 Executive Summary 4 Introduction 7 Main Employment Conditions 8 Country Typology of Employment Relations 9

Abstract: This article has four core aims. First, to identify the processes of change women undertake to leave sex work through a typology of transitions. The typology suggests four dominant ways out of sex ...

Abstract: Purpose. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is one of the most frequently applied methods of psychotherapy in clinical practice. However, it is the subject of controversial discussion, especially with regard to empirical evidence. In this article we aim to give an up-to-date description of the treatment and to review the available empirical evidence. Evidence is reviewed for both efficacy and mechanisms of change of short- and moderate-term psychodynamic psychotherapy. Furthermore, results of effectiveness studies of long-term psychoanalytic therapy are reviewed. Methods. With regard to efficacy, a protocol for a Cochrane review for (short-term) psychodynamic psychotherapy is available specifying inclusion criteria for efficacy studies. Results. Twenty-three randomized controlled trials of manual-guided psychodynamic psychotherapy applied in specific psychiatric disorders provided evidence that psychodynamic psychotherapy is superior to control conditions (treatment-as-usual or wait list) and, on the whole, as effective as already established treatments (e.g. cognitive-behavioural therapy) in specific psychiatric disorders. With regard to process research, central assumptions of psychodynamic psychotherapy were confirmed by empirical studies. Conclusions. Further research should include both efficacy studies (on specific forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific mental disorders) and effectiveness studies complementing the results from experimental research settings. Future process research should address the complex interactions among interventions, patient's level of functioning, helping alliance and outcome.

Abstract: The use of landholder typologies to aid the development, implementation, and monitoring natural-resource management (NRM) policies and programs has increased considerably during the past decade. This article explores the potential for using such typologies for a variety of NRM and rural and regional development applications. Review of typology use further suggests that there is potential to refine the way that typologies are developed and applied to better aid NRM, farming systems analyses, and rural and regional development. Before typologies will be adopted more widely, a number of theoretical and methodologic issues must be addressed. These include the following questions: (1) Which criteria and methods should or can be used to classify landholders? (2) How should studies across spatial and temporal scales be integrated? (3) How should multiple and single industry studies be integrated to gain the most value from research? We argue that quantitative research techniques are well suited to provide an underlying structure for landholder typologies, and qualitative research techniques are useful for developing understanding of the nature of variation within and between landholder types. We argued further that because of the potential utility and breadth for the application of landholder typologies, a nested set of landholder typologies could be developed that are coordinated at the national, regional, and local geographic levels, with repeated measures used to track the evolution with time of landholder practices, management values, and socioeconomic characteristics.

Abstract: Although the job and career functions of workers' networks have been well documented, there is little understanding of the social support that workers provide to their network members. This article addresses this gap by developing a typology of social support that workers provide to their network members. Drawing on interview data from 40 employees, the author identifies six types of social support that vary in terms of their intimacy, emotional energy expended, nonemotional resources required, frequency of expression, and function. The author concludes by discussing the implications of this typology for our understanding of workplace intimacy and the benefits of informal networks in work organizations.

Abstract: Purpose — The purpose of this paper is to provide services marketers with a deeper understanding of the elements that characterize mass services. The paper shows that many studies have been conducted within the context of professional and retail services, knowledge of mass service contexts is limited despite the growth of services within this context. Design/methodology/approach — This paper provides a conceptual overview of mass services and develops a typology for mass services based on an extensive review of the services literature. Specifically, the typology developed classifies mass services on the basis of service delivery and purpose. The typology forwarded, therefore, classifies mass services using a two-by-two framework with individual and collective mass services classified as either utilitarian or hedonic in nature. Findings — The typology found in this paper provides a practical insight into the characteristics of services falling into the classification of mass services. The value of the classification is that managers can better understand the unique aspects of mass services, thus, allowing for a better utilization of limited resources. Moreover, the paper provides insights into a service classification that has received limited research emphasis, yet, is attracting increasing industry attention. Originality/value — This paper provides academics and practitioners with a framework that has both tactical and strategic implications. These implications include enhancing the customer experience and thus customer retention, resource management, employee training and service management. Given that such a framework has not been forwarded in the literature, the typology presented in the current paper makes an original contribution to the literature.

Abstract: Abstract Recent research within the psychology of religion and empirical theology has drawn attention to the theoretical and practical power of psychological type theory to illuminate and to facilitate the practice of Christian ministry. Building on this tradition, in the present study the psychological type preferences of 626 male Anglican clergy and 247 female Anglican clergy in England were assessed using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The purpose was to profile the personal and professional qualities of those engaged in Christian ministry within this specific context. Both male and female clergy revealed preferences for introversion over extraversion, intuition over sensing, feeling over thinking, and judging over perceiving. Points of similarity and difference between the current sample and the wider United Kingdom population are explored, as well as with Anglican congregations and other clergy in the United Kingdom. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of interpreting diversity, strengths, and potential weaknesses in ministry. The findings are valuable for practical theology in informing practices of selecting, training, deploying and supporting clergy. Questions can also be posed for theological construction, but that work is of another genre and will be done in future deliberations. Zusammenfassung Innerhalb der Religionspsychologie und der Empirischen Theologie wurde die Aufmerksamkeit in der jüngeren Forschung auf das theoretische und praktische Potential von psychologischen Typen-Theorien gerichtet, um die Praxis des christlichen geistlichen Amtes zu erhellen und zu vereinfachen. Auf dieser Tradition aufbauend, wurden in dieser hier vorliegenden Studie die Präferenzen psychologischer Typen von 626 männlichen und 247 weiblichen anglikanischen Geistlichen in England unter Verwendung des Myers-Briggs Typen Indikators erhoben. Die Absicht bestand darin, die persönlichen und professionellen Qualitäten derer zu beschreiben, die innerhalb dieses spezifischen Kontexts ihren geistlichen Dienst tun. Sowohl die männlichen wie die weiblichen Geistlichen ließen dabei Präferenzen erkennen für die Introvertiertheit gegenüber der Extrovertiertheit, für die Intuition gegenüber der Sensorik, für das Fühlen gegenüber dem Denken sowie für die Beurteilung gegenüber der Wahrnehmung. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie wurden mit Blick auf Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede verglichen mit der breiteren Bevölkerung Großbritanniens ebenso wie mit anglikanischen Gemeinden und anderen Geistlichen im Vereinigten Königreich. Die Folgerungen aus diesen Analysen werden anhand der Interpretation der Unterschiede, der Stärken und der möglichen Schwächen mit Bezug auf das geistliche Amt diskutiert. Die Ergebnisse sind wertvoll für die Praktische Theologie, da sie Auskunft geben hinsichtlich der Praxis der Auswahl, der Ausbildung, des Einsatzes und der Unterstützung der Geistlichen. Außerdem können Fragen gestellt werden hinsichtlich der theologischen Gestaltung, was aber ein anderes Feld darstellt, das in zukünftigen Überlegungen zu bearbeiten ist.

Abstract: ion in gesture. Semiotica, 90: 225-250].Driessen, H. (1991). "Gestured masculinity: body and sociability in rural Andalusia." In J. Bremmer &H. Roodenburg (Eds.), A Cultural History of Gesture, (pp. 237-249). Ithaca, New York: CornellUniversity Press.Efron, D. (1972). Gesture, Race and Culture. The Hague: Mouton & Co.Ekman, Paul , and Wallace Friesen (1969). "The repertoire of non-verbal behavior: Categories, origins,usage and coding." In Semiotica 1(1):49-98. [A classic and much-cited paper. The typology established here, derived from David Efron, has beenextremely influential].Kendon, A. (1981). "Geography of gesture." In Semiotica, 37(1/2), 129-163. [An essay Morris, et al.'s Gestures: Their origin and distribution].--- (1984). "Did gesture have the happiness to escape the curse at the confusion of Babel?" In A.Wolfgang (Ed.), Nonverbal Behavior: Perspectives, Applications, Intercultural Insights, (pp. 75-114).Lewiston, New York: C. J. Hogrefe. [A comprehensive rerview of cultural comparative studies of gesture].--- (1992). "Some recent work from Italy on quotable gestures ('emblems')." In

Abstract: PURPOSE: The purpose of this article is to discuss the benefits and limitations of, and considerations in, developing a typology of assisted living (AL). DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a review and comparison of nine AL typologies drawn from the literature. RESULTS: Typologies addressed matters related to the structure, process, population, and philosophy of AL to varying degrees. A lack of available data and different sampling frames hindered attempts to quantitatively compare the typologies. IMPLICATIONS: Typologies are potentially useful for consumers, practitioners, policy makers, and researchers. It is advisable to identify state-based typologies and then empirically determine types that have national representation. Stakeholders should consider the tradeoff between sensitivity and specificity and allow any resulting typology to anticipate ongoing evolution in the field of AL. Language: en

Abstract: This article advances a conceptual typology delineating the differences and similarities between business- and social-sector new venture creators. Our classification scheme differentiates business and social entrepreneurs, considering characteristics of social entrepreneurs in a larger entrepreneurial context.Within a conceptual 2x2 typology based on two dimensions: drive (passion vs. business) and desired return (financial ROI vs. social ROI), we identify and classify 80 examples of new venture creators into one of the quadrants of an enterprise model of entrepreneurs. Preliminary results reveal similarities between social and traditional entrepreneurs and differentiate social entrepreneurs in terms of traits, goals, tendencies, and motivational sources.

Abstract: The article’s starting point is that the now-conventional conceptualization of welfare state retrenchment as a shift from state provision of income support to market processes is misleading. Rather, state provision may be replaced by benefits negotiated collectively by trade unions and employers. As a first step to further investigate this development the article suggests a typology of institutional contexts within which industrial agreements on social benefits emerge. This typology is based on Thomas H. Marshall’s distinction between political and industrial citizenship. Following the comparative method of the ‘parallel demonstration of theory’, the typology is applied to four countries where collective agreements on social benefits have recently been concluded, namely Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Germany. It is argued that, on the one hand, the state’s activity or passivity in labour relations and, on the other hand, the timing of the institutionalization of political and industrial citizenship is decisive for the development of collectively negotiated benefits. The conclusion for comparative welfare state research is that, when viewing policies of welfare state retrenchment, the research should systematically include industrial relations and their historical trajectories in its frame of reference.

Abstract: In this article I describe a number of ways in which non‐western cultures have adopted and used western educational approaches, forming an illustrative typology of these adaptations. I provide an illustration(s) of each category in the typology, briefly presenting the history of the category, detailing its modern state, and discussing selected aspects of the effectiveness of a particular educational system. Efficacy is discussed along the following indicators for the country(ies) exemplified in a given category: (1) literacy rates in the general population, (2) standing of the country's students as exemplified by results of international comparison studies, and (3) perceived standing of higher‐education graduates of a given educational system as judged by the international labour market or commented on by the international community.

Abstract: Abstract 1. Introduction China possesses rich linguistic resources which remain relatively untapped: the ten main Sinitic languages or dialect groups account for roughly 93% of the population (Mandarin, Jin, Xiang, Gan, Hui, Wu, Min, Kejia, Yue, and Pinghua); the remaining 7% comprise the many different “minority” languages in long term contact with Sinitic such as Tibeto-Burman, Mongolian, Hmong, and Tai. In an almost unprecedented state of affairs, written records for Chinese extend without a break 3,000 years into the past, furnishing a rich documentation for any kind of historical study.

Abstract: Abstract Typology has the hallmarks of a mature discipline: a society, conferences, journals, books, textbooks, classic works, a founding father, and people who are called and call themselves typologists. A typologist probably teaches a course with a title like “Typology and Universals” which includes readings by Greenberg, Dixon, and Dryer, often a textbook such as Whaley (1997), Comrie (1989), Song (2001), and/or Croft (2003), and some grammar-reading assignments. With regard to research, the typologist reads grammars, does at least some crosslinguistic research, has probably done some fieldwork and description, and usually does not identify with or claim allegiance to any particular named theoretical framework. Despite these conspicuous identifying marks, I submit that the position of typologists on this should be that there is no such subfield of linguistics as the usual referent of “typology”.

Abstract: Community college funding formulas are tools utilized to substantiate the acquisition of funds and delineate the cost of education. This study develops a typology of community college funding formulas placing 48 states in three categories and five subcategories.

Abstract: The goal of this article is twofold: to present a brief overview of differences and similarities between formal grammars (regardless of particular mode of implementation) and typology, and to outline the common challenge faced by both. To anticipate our conclusion, typological approaches to language and theory construction have much to offer each other, but need to engage in a real dialogue, rather than merely talk about the need for such a dialogue. Otherwise both orientations run the risk of becoming (increasingly) irrelevant. The idea that language structure is shaped by communicative needs of speakers has constituted a major thread in linguistic discourse over the last century – this idea is prominently represented in the Prague Linguistics Circle, in Roman Jakobson’s work, in Simon Dik’s Functional Grammar, and in much of linguistic typological work, which rests on the foundation of such earlier researchers. We agree with Nichols (2007) that the functional orientation of typology does not entail rejection of structure; rather, functionalism in typology manifests in the recognition of communicative, social, or processing needs as the reasons grammars are the way they are. To borrow a contrast from a different linguistic dialect, typology needs E-language to explain I-language (Chomsky 1986). This inherently functional premise of typology is sometimes misunderstood, both by non-typologists as well as by typologists themselves. Among typologists, some are eager to use functions as operational criteria for the definition of a grammatical phenomenon, which leads to statements like “[i]n a prototypical active voice, the agent [. . . ] is the most topical participant of the clause” (Givon 1990: 566), or “the structural complexity of a form tends to reflect conceptual or experiential complexity” (Newman 1996: 17), or “discourse factors – such as the saliency of the first argument – favor interpretation of the first argument as subject” (Chelliah 1997: 121). Pronouncements of this type provide