Abstract: What does it mean to think about technology philosophically? Why try? These are the issues that Carl Mitcham addresses in this work, a comprehensive, critical introduction to the philosophy of technology and a discussion of its sources and uses. Tracing the changing meaning of "technology" from ancient times to the modern day, Mitcham identifies the most important traditions of critical analysis of technology: the engineering approach, which assumes the centrality of technology in human life; and the humanities approach, which is concerned with its moral and cultural boundaries. Mitcham bridges these two traditions through an analysis of discussions of engineering design, of the distinction between tools and machines, and of engineering science itself. He looks at technology as it is experienced in everyday life: as material objects (from kitchenware to computers); as knowledge (including recipes, rules, theories and intuitive "know-how"); as activity (design, construction and use); and as volition (knowing how to use technology and understanding its consequences). By elucidating these multiple aspects, Mitcham establishes criteria for a more comprehensive analysis of ethical issues in applications of science and technology.

Abstract: The central purpose of this paper is to outline an evolutionary theory of technology policy and to connect it with the emerging literature on national systems of innovation. Any understanding of technology policy must be based on a clear understanding of the nature of technology and the important differences between science and technology. Technology can be treated in terms of knowledge, skills, and artifacts and in each case there are different variety-generating mechanisms, different selection processes, and different institutional structures. For policy purposes, the degree of connection between these different dimensions of technology is at the core of technology policy. (c) 1995 Academic Press, Inc. Copyright 1995 by Oxford University Press.

Abstract: This study examines children's choice of drawing to communicate their understanding of the concept “technology”. The study explored whether the children's drawings accurately reflected the depth and range of their understanding of technology in a way that was interpretable by others. Data were collected from 314 primary school children in England and 745 children in Western Australia. Children were invited to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding about technology by responding to a writing/drawing activity and a representative subsample were then interviewed about their responses. About two-thirds of children's responses to the activity included drawings. Children held a wide range of ideas about technology and only rarely was a drawing difficult to interpret. Although overall the drawings reflected the range of children's ideas, sometimes they did not reveal the depth or breadth of an individual child's understanding. Consistent with the ideas represented in the drawings, the interviews found that younger children held simpler ideas about technology, while older children held more complex, and sometimes quite abstract concepts of technology. A notable difference between the two countries was the emphasis on “design and make” and a smaller proportion of no response in the English sample, reflecting the greater length of time technology education has been implemented in England compared to Western Australia.

Abstract: The meaning of technology seems simple. Most people have little difficulty expressing some notion of what it is. Technology is machine, automobile, computer, tool ... the list goes on and on.

Abstract: 1. A Call for Technological Literacy 2. Making Way for Technology Education 3. Strategies for Creating Coherent Programs 4. Alternative Ways of Structuring a Curriculum 5. Establishing Technology Education in the Schools Appendices: A. Technology Education in Other Countries B. A Thematic Approach Across Grades C. Resource List D. Teachers and School Sites

Abstract: One approach to providing the inservice education and continuing school-based support needed by teachers to use computers effectively is mentoring. The Computer Mentor Program, a collaborative effort between a university and school district, developed and evaluated a model for staff development on the effective use of computers based on successful mentoring models for beginning teachers. Experienced computer-using teachers participated in a semester course that provided guidance in mentoring and information on technology applications. These teachers then each mentored one to five teachers in their schools. The mentoring relationship was structured through the use of individual plans developed between each mentor and protege. Over three years, the project included 59 mentors and 154 proteges. Evaluation indicated that both mentors and proteges developed increased knowledge of computer applications and that proteges made more extensive and varied use of computers both with students and for professio...

Abstract: In a recent technological education teacher development study, two elements of teacher socialization–the process of formally preparing to become a teacher (Ginsburg, 1988, p.1)–were singled out for review. First, the study set out to examine the influences on teacher socialization prior to formal teacher education. Second, the impact of pre-service teacher education itself, was explored. The socialization process for technological education teachers was felt to have two dimensions: The first concerns the adjustment would-be teachers make when initially preparing for the profession. Feiman-Nemser (1990) refers to this adjustment as a transformative one because teachers come to the profession with a range of preconceptions that may or may not be effective in the classroom instruction component of a teacher’s work. The second element of socialization is identified in the occupational socialization research literature (Schein, 1985) and involves the adjustment a teacher makes as she/he becomes an educator in a broader context, i.e., the adjustment of the individual to the culture of the profession. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of the teacher development study undertaken at the University of Western Ontario (UWO), Faculty of Education.

Abstract: Much of the published research on cognitive styles focuses on the differences in cognitive styles of students pursuing different majors in either a four year institution or a two year institution. For example, Witkin, et al. (1977) conducted a ten year longitudinal study in four year institutions which sought to determine if field dependence/independence was related to a student's (1) initial major choice (science, education, and other) and final degree major and (2) achievement in various major courses. The study determined that the selection of a major was influenced by cognitive styles and that students who initially selected majors that required a particular cognitive style which was different than their own were more likely to change to a major which complemented their cognitive style. The study also found a tendency for students to receive higher grades in fields that were compatible with their cognitive style. Frank (1986) found that field dependence/independence of female education majors varied depending on the particular area of specialization within an education major (home economics, nursing, science, and special education). His results indicate that within an apparently homogeneous group characterized by a college major such as education, differences in cognitive styles may exist. No research was found which assessed the cognitive styles of students pursuing technology majors and their specializations. When attempting to utilize cognitive styles research to improve instruction, educators should not assume that, within the field of technology, student cognitive styles are the same. Neither should they assume that the cognitive styles of students pursuing different technical specializations, such as electronics and mechanics, are different. Technology teacher preparation programs continue to be arranged around the unit shop model (Clark, 1989). Brown (1993) suggests that technology educators acquire technical knowledge by taking technical courses: (1) exclusively in technology programs designed to prepare educators, (2) derived from

Abstract: One of the recommendations made in the discussion document,A Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa (CUMSA), which was released by the Department of National Education in 1991, is that technology education should be offered for the first nine years of pre-tertiary education as a compulsory subject and for the last three years as an optional subject. This paper aims to locate technology education in the context of the sociopolitical and economic background to education in South Africa and to assess to what extent it meets the emerging aims and needs of education. Further aims are to propose a rationale for the teaching of technology at school level in South Africa, to suggest possible broad aims for the teaching of technology, to outline the nature and character of technology education relevant to the South African situation and to propose a possible methodology for technology education in South Africa. The conclusion is reached that technology education can make an important contribution to South African education if the so-called ‘technological process’ is the major emphasis as this can be transformative and promote quality education.

Abstract: Object-oriented (OO) technology has been heralded as a solution to the problems of software engineering. The claims are that OO technology promotes understandability, extensibility, evolvabilty, reusability, and maintainability of systems and that OO systems are easy to understand and use. However, this technology has not been as successful as expected. An analysis of experiences and empirical studies reveals that the problem is not the technology per se but that the technology provides no support to software developers in performing the processes the technology requires. We present a cognitive model of software development that details the challenges software developers face in using OO technology. The model focuses on three aspects of software development-evolution, resue and redesign, and domain orientation. We motivate this model with a variety of firsthand experiences and use it to assess current OO technology. Further, we present tools and evaluations that substantiate parts of this model. The model and tools indicate directions for future software development environments, looking beyond the technological possibilities of OO languages and beyond the context of individual developers and projects.

Abstract: It is time to recognize that educational technology cannot be considered a panacea for educational reform. Technology, when properly used, can be a very effective tool for improving and enhancing instruction and learning experiences in the content areas. However, incorporation of electronic tools, such as computers and videodiscs, into classrooms must be accompanied by systemic change in the educational process. Successful utilization of technology depends on how we provide teachers with the necessary environment for training, tools for instruction, and technology evaluation skills. This paper examines some of the misuses of technology and then explores the appropriate use of technology in the context of current educational reform. The focus is on the integration of technology in the educational process that provides a learning environment allowing discovery and creativity through the use of computer visualizations. The teacher is seen as the essential element, requiring a solid foundation in the general applications of technology, and the ability to evaluate and select systems that are effective and efficient for specific applications.

Abstract: Key words: innovations; knowledge diffusion; technology transfer Practitioners and academics are recognizing that stability is no longer a measure of success in providing social services to people. Although at one time flux in an agency or government bureau was taken as a sign of a troubled environment, people have come to recognize that social services agencies can also "thrive on chaos" (Peters & Waterman, 1982). Managers and practitioners have become more accepting of the wave of reform that has seized their daily activities (Moore, 1993; "Organizational Change," 1992; Schoech, Cavalier, & Hoover, 1993). Scholars, clearly recognizing the increasing gaps between what is known in social work and the problems that are being confronted (Lindsey & Kirk, 1992; Task Force on Social Work Research,1991), have joined in the search for new solutions. The search for new solutions in many social services agencies and programs has been coupled with a newly discovered enthusiasm for knowledge diffusion. The federal government and many private foundations have displayed new interest in knowledge utilization, information dissemination, program replication, technology transfer, and innovation diffusion. The federal government has funded knowledge diffusion prospects through the National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, the Children's National Demonstration Program, and the Administration for Children and Families and through families and others (Backer, 1991; Backer & Shaperman, 1993). It has also supported international transfers through U.S. Department of Health and Human Services discretionary funds ("Transfer of International Innovations," 1991). Foundation initiatives related to innovation have been sponsored by the Aspen Institute (1993), the Synergos Institute (1992), the Mega Cities Project (1992), and others. In 1989 the largest 475 American foundations awarded $563 million for research and demonstration. The Exxon Foundation IMPACT (Implementation of Materials and Procedures Affecting College Teaching) Program was created to promote wider use of educational innovations (Backer & Shaperman, 1993). Although the government and charitable foundations are no longer convinced that researchers can be constantly testing new programmatic strategies, they agree that innovations that have already been successfully tested need to be broadly disseminated and applied (Institute for Educational Leadership, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992, 1994). In addition, these innovations should no longer be confined to those that originate in the United States. As the human services world becomes increasingly global, it is essential that federal, state, and local government and voluntary agencies and for-profit corporations become familiar with appropriately selected innovations from other countries that might prove useful in meeting the ever increasing needs of the United States (Conservation Company, 1993; National Association of Social Workers, 1993; "Rural Health Outreach Grant Program," 1991; "Transfer of International Innovations," 1991). Schorr (1988) suggested that the best way to combat helplessness in relation to social problems is to identify innovations that help and to encourage their diffusion. But the process of disseminating new knowledge or ideas is not an easy one. As early as 1903, Tarde remarked that the problem of those who study innovations is to learn why "given one hundred different innovations conceived at the same time . . . ten will spread . . . while ninety will be forgotten" (p. 140). Innovation research has suggested some specific and predictable steps in the communication and adoption of innovations and the transfer of technology (Rogers, 1983; Rogers & Kincaid, 1981; Smale & Tuson, 1992). It might be that when the appropriate steps are followed, innovations spread, but when they are not, knowledge is not disseminated or is disseminated only in limited ways. …

Abstract: It is important to identify the Problem of errors of using Chinese words (in Chinese "cuobiezi"). Its relevance with students' language competence is clear. In China, researches deal with simplified characters. (in Chinese "jiantizi") and the contributions aims for “standardisation of words”. This paper deals with errors of using original characters (in Chinese "fantizi") of junior secondary students. The multiple methods have been employed to investigate the relationship between the frequency of errors and the language competence of students. The results showed that (1) the frequency of errors of using Chinese words reflects the language competence of students; and (2) different reasons attribute to the errors of Chinese words. This paper finally suggests that we should (1) change the "word count" method in marking Chinese compositions; (2) collect the errors of using Chinese words; (3) encourage students to enlarge their vocabulary and to use more words in their compositions; (4) teach "ci" instead of "zi".

Abstract: Introduction International technology transfer to Developing Nations takes place mostly within international alliances and cooperative arrangements between enterprises located in these countries and companies from the industrialized part of the world. Joint ventures and technical agreements such as licensing, franchising, etc., form the economic framework of technology transfer (Contractor/Sagafinejad 1981, Marton 1986, Robinson 1988). Accordingly, in literature the success of technology transfer is largely seen in the success of operations of these collaborations, e.g. in terms of profit or return on investment. Although a necessary criterion, this alone, however, does not suffice, since the imminent dimensions of technology transfer and its determinants are not reflected in it. Thus, it becomes difficult to pinpoint the relevant characteristics that really matter for understanding and actively shaping the transfer process. This paper attempts to outline the core characteristics of technology transfer and the related success criteria. After discussing briefly the theoretical framework, its empirical evidence will be evaluated in connection with a sample of Indo-German technology transfer agreements, joints ventures, licensing and the like. Theoretical Framework Basic Concept Looking at the phenomenon of technology transfer theoretically and practically one realizes without much ado that it really means conveying or acquiring know-how of some form of the other to or from contract-partners within a cooperative venture. The idea of "conveying" or "acquiring" in depth suggests learning (teaching), and the success of technology in the narrow sense would then imply "learning success". The learning aspect is of central importance in transfer agreements between corporations of industrialized and Developing Countries. Over and above learning in this context is and must be made an active process and integrated part of the transfer deal (Bell 1984, Pavitt 1985). Learning Success Learning (success) can be understood as a process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes in terms of enhancing the cognitive, practical and mental ability needed to perform a specific job. The job specification in connection with technology transfer to Developing Countries is invariably related to industrial activity, specifically industrial manufacturing. From the point of view of the technology supplier imparted knowledge, skills and attitudes should then enable the technology receiver to perform specified manufacturing activity independently. Due to the complexity of manufacturing processes, however, we can assume that the technology receiver's ultimate manufacturing ability develops in stages which depict incremental learning. These stages of "manufacturing learning" are (Westphal et al. 1985, Austin 1990): 1. Reproduction, 2. Adaptation or Modification, and 3. Innovation. The Reproduction stage is the relatively easiest and fastest to achieve. On the basis of imparted knowledge and skills, for example by demonstration and learning on-the-job, the technology receiver can quickly be put in a position to simply imitate the manufacturing process. The productivity of manufacturing and the quality of the output may vary from the original technology process due to lack of experience (learning curve) and different supportive systems (organization, machinery, etc.) on the receiver's side. However, in most developing countries the attainment of reproductive manufacturing ability is in itself considered a success towards import-substitution and to self sufficiency. Acquiring basic manufacturing skills also helps to develop the sensibility towards specific local manufacturing requirements and the ability of reacting to them. In the Adaptation stage technology receivers then are in a position to modify imparted knowledge and skills accordingly. This achievement also complies to development goals because it helps not only to substitute imports but also to develop appropriate indigenous technology (Ito 1986). …

Abstract: In his paper on “Shaping the Future of a Profession,” Waetjen (1992) challenged technology education to establish itself as an academic discipline. He emphasized four elements common to disciplines: domain, history, mode of inquiry, and instructive capability. In assessing these elements, Waetjen noted the lack of a history of technology education and also recommended the development of a framework for such a history. This paper focuses on several historiographical issues that need to be considered in developing a framework for a history of technology education. Historiography is concerned with how we select and interpret historical data and how we conceptualize and write history. For example, Bennett (1926, 1937), one of the best known American historians of industrial education, usually focused on aspects associated with industrial education but rarely interpreted them in the broader social context. Today, technology educators are expected to help students interpret technology in the context of society. Consequently, Bennett cannot be considered an adequate guide to the heritage of technology education. Furthermore, technology education claims a wider scope of content and more explicit reflection on solving problems than industrial education. Thus, a history of industrial education is not adequate for understanding the heritage of technology education. This paper is divided into three main sections, the first of which is concerned with technology education and society. The second section addresses narrative and systems approaches to historical data and is followed by a third section that illustrates these different approaches through two examples.

Abstract: This paper has three interlocking themes. The first relates to rationales for the inclusion of technology education in the school curriculum worldwide. The second deals with the issues that have to be addressed as that inclusion is either made or extended. The third is the relation between technology and the environment, which has implications for the problems addressed by technology education.

Abstract: Technological change in the work force is a critical problem in business and industry, precipitating the quick obsolescence and emergence of job skills and training (Fairhurst, 1990). Cornish (1977) describes the tremendous change that has occurred within our society as convulsive. Change is also perhaps, the most appropriate term to describe the reformation that is currently taking place in the field of technology education. Changes in the goals, activities, instructional methodologies, and types of instructional programs within technology education has caused considerable debate within the profession. Indeed, the instructional field of technology education has undergone radical changes in past years. Ever since the pioneering curricular efforts of William Warner in the late 1940’s technology education has progressively strived to move beyond a product-based curriculum to a more process-based curriculum that strives to encourage and develop higher-order thinking in students (Wicklein, 1993). The decade of the 1990s promises to bring even more significant changes to the field of technology education. The development of the Conceptual Framework for Technology Education (Savage & Sterry, 1991) presented both a theoretical and practical approach to understanding the instructional goals and objectives of technology education. Further, current efforts to develop curricula that integrates technology education with science and mathematics is currently viewed as a significant focus of change for the field (LaPorte & Sanders, 1993; Wicklein & Schell, 1995) that will have serious impact on the field of technology education in the coming years (LaPorte & Sanders, 1993; Scarborough, 1993; Wicklein & Schell, 1995). The debate over changes that have been made in the field of technology education and the current direction of the field has created a certain degree of

Abstract: The several reports and papers of the past decade suggesting paradigm shifts in engineering education are shown to reveal a common theme, to wit: engineering is an integrative process, and thus engineering education, particularly at the baccalaureate level, should be designed toward that end. Suggesting a change in intellectual culture, the roots of contemporary collegiate education in the United States are traced to their origin and attention is given to discussing the current emphasis on reductionism vis-a-vis integration or, said another way, a course-focused education compared to a more holistic approach in which process and knowledge are woven throughout the curriculum. A new construct for systemic change in baccalaureate engineering education is suggested in terms of a taxonomy of intellectual components connected holistically with a core focus on developing human potential, as opposed to the present system in which students are passed serially through course filters.