Abstract: How Languages are Learned (3rd ed.) by Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada. Reviewed by Youngsoon So In the introduction to a collection of articles on second language acquisition naturalistic, instructed, or both – has long been a common activity for a majority of the human species and is becoming ever more vital as second languages them- Considering the diversity of SLA contexts and different factors/variables involved in these contexts, a single teaching method is unlikely to guarantee the best results. Therefore, language teachers need to be according to the demands of their immediate teaching context. In this respect, Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada’s How Languages are Learned is a good resource for all language teachers, those in SLA in particular, in that it provides a comprehensive overview of what factors have been proven, disproven, or still left unproven to SLA processes and outcomes and how variable the effects of different factors can be in each language learning/teaching context. Although not segmented in this way by the authors, the book can be divided The introduction serves as a general guideline to provide readers with an overview of the topics to be discussed in later chapters. The authors also provide an informal survey asking the readers’ beliefs about a range of SLA processes and outcomes, issues the authors ask readers to keep considering while reading the rest of the book. In the closing chapter positions by elaborating each survey point. This circular format is a good way to help readers actively relate their own thoughts and experience to the reading and see whether there is any difference between their thoughts and the opinions sup- ported by literature. develop- ment acquisition has been thought to be the foundation on which SLA processes can be explained, if acquisition are taken into account. As such, the authors begin with a chapter outlining and evaluating three behaviorist, innatist, and interactional/ developmental perspectives. authors argue for childhood bilingualism. The second part consists of four chapters (Chapters 2-5) dealing with different aspects of SLA: SLA theories (Chapter 2), individual learner differences in SLA

Abstract: Does reading novels evoking empathy with fictional characters really cultivate our sympathetic imagination and lead to altruistic actions on behalf of real others? Empathy and the Novel presents a comprehensive account of the relationships among novel reading, empathy, and altruism. Though readers' and authors' empathy certainly contribute to the emotional resonance of fiction and its success in the marketplace, Keen finds the case for altruistic consequences of novel reading inconclusive (and exaggerated by defenders of literary reading). She offers instead a detailed theory of narrative empathy, with proposals about its deployment by novelists and its results in readers. Empathy and the Novel engages with neuroscience and contemporary psychological research on empathy, bringing affect to the center of cognitive literary studies' scrutiny of narrative fiction. Drawing on narrative theory, literary history, philosophy, and contemporary scholarship in discourse processing, Keen brings together resources and challenges for the literary study of empathy and the psychological study of fiction reading. Empathy robustly enters into affective responses to fiction, but its proper role in shaping the behavior of emotional readers has been debated for three centuries. Keen surveys these debates and offers a series of hypotheses about literary empathy, including narrative techniques inviting empathetic response. She argues that above all readers' perception of a text's fictiveness increases the likelihood of readers' empathy, by releasing readers from their guarded responses to the demands of real others. She confirms the centrality of narrative empathy as a strategy, as well as a subject, of contemporary novelists. Despite the disrepute of putative human universals, novelists from around the world endorse the notion of shared human emotions when they overtly call upon their readers' empathy. Consequently, Keen suggests, if narrative empathy is to be better understood, then women's reading and popular fiction must be accorded the respect of experimental inquiry.

Abstract: Whether the native language of bilingual individuals is active during second-language comprehension is the subject of lively debate. Studies of bilingualism have often used a mix of first- and second-language words, thereby creating an artificial “dual-language” context. Here, using event-related brain potentials, we demonstrate implicit access to the first language when bilinguals read words exclusively in their second language. Chinese–English bilinguals were required to decide whether English words presented in pairs were related in meaning or not; they were unaware of the fact that half of the words concealed a character repetition when translated into Chinese. Whereas the hidden factor failed to affect behavioral performance, it significantly modulated brain potentials in the expected direction, establishing that English words were automatically and unconsciously translated into Chinese. Critically, the same modulation was found in Chinese monolinguals reading the same words in Chinese, i.e., when Chinese character repetition was evident. Finally, we replicated this pattern of results in the auditory modality by using a listening comprehension task. These findings demonstrate that native-language activation is an unconscious correlate of second-language comprehension.

Abstract: Contents: D.S. McNamara, Preface. Part I: Theories of Text Comprehension: The Importance of Reading Strategies to Theoretical Foundations of Reading Comprehension. A.C. Graesser, An Introduction to Strategic Reading Comprehension. P. Kendeou, P. van den Broek, M.J. White, J. Lynch, Comprehension in Preschool and Early Elementary Children: Skill Development and Strategy Interventions. J. Oakhill, K. Cain, Issues of Causality in Children's Reading Comprehension. M.R. Vitale, N.R. Romance, A Knowledge-Based Framework for Unifying Content-Area Reading Comprehension and Reading Comprehension Strategies. Part II: Using Assessment to Guide Reading Interventions. J.P. Magliano, K. Millis, Y. Ozuru, D.S. McNamara, A Multidimensional Framework to Evaluate Reading Assessment Tools. A. VanderVeen, K. Huff, M. Gierl, D.S. McNamara, M. Louwerse, A. Graesser, Developing and Validating Instructionally Relevant Reading Competency Profiles Measured by the Critical Reading Section of the SAT. Part III: Reading Comprehension Strategy Interventions. D. Fuchs, L.S. Fuchs, Increasing Strategic Reading Comprehension With Peer-Assisted Learning Activities. J.P. Williams, Literacy in the Curriculum: Integrating Text Structure and Content Area Instruction. A.M. Glenberg, B. Jaworski, M. Rischal, J. Levin, What Brains Are For: Action, Meaning, and Reading Comprehension. J.T. Guthrie, A. Taboada, C.S. Coddington, Engagement Practices for Strategy Learning in Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction. A. King, Beyond Literal Comprehension: A Strategy to Promote Deep Understanding of Text. Part IV: Automated Interventions to Improve Reading Comprehension Strategies. M.C. Johnson-Glenberg, Web-Based Reading Comprehension Instruction: Three Studies of 3D-Readers. N. Yuill, Visiting Joke City: How Can Talking About Jokes Foster Metalinguistic Awareness in Poor Comprehenders? B.J.F. Meyer, K. Wijekumar, A Web-Based Tutoring System for the Structure Strategy: Theoretical Background, Design, and Findings. D. Caccamise, M. Franzke, A. Eckhoff, E. Kintsch, W. Kintsch, Guided Practice in Technology-Based Summary Writing. D.S. McNamara, T. O'Reilly, M. Rowe, C. Boonthum, I. Levinstein, iSTART: A Web-Based Tutor That Teaches Self-Explanation and Metacognitive Reading Strategies. B. Dalton, C.P. Proctor, Reading as Thinking: Integrating Strategy Instruction in a Universally Designed Digital Literacy Environment. A.S. Palincsar, R.J. Spiro, L. Kucan, S.J. Magnusson, B. Collins, S. Hapgood, A. Ramchandran, N. DeFrance, A. Gelpi-Lomangino, Research to Practice: Designing a Hypermedia Environment to Support Elementary Teachers' Learning of Robust Comprehension Instruction. Part V: Conclusion. D.S. McNamara, Y. Ozuru, R. Best, T. O'Reilly, The 4-Pronged Comprehension Strategy Framework.

Abstract: A significant proportion of American high school students struggle with reading comprehension Theoretical models of reading comprehension might help researchers understand these difficulties, because they can point to variables that make the largest contributions to comprehension On the basis of an extensive review of the literature, we created a new model of reading comprehension, the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model The model hypothesizes relationships among background knowledge, inferences, reading comprehension strategies, vocabulary, and word reading and addresses the direct and mediated effects of these 5 predictors on comprehension The authors tested the fit of the model and 3 variations of the model to data from 175 students in 9th grade The DIME model explained 66% of the variance in comprehension Vocabulary and background knowledge made the largest contributions to comprehension, followed by inference, word reading, and strategies Analyses of participants scoring below the 30th percentile on comprehension showed these students to have low scores on all of the measures The authors suggest that vocabulary and background knowledge interventions might be the best way to begin improving the academic reading comprehension of students like those in the sample

Abstract: Functional and structural neuroimaging studies of adult readers have provided a deeper understanding of the neural basis of reading, yet such findings also elicit new questions about how developing neural systems come to support this learned ability. A developmental cognitive neuroscience approach provides insights into how skilled reading emerges in the developing brain, yet also raises new methodological challenges. This review focuses on functional changes that occur during reading acquisition in cortical regions associated with both the perception of visual words and spoken language, and it examines how such functional changes differ within developmental reading disabilities. We integrate these findings within an interactive specialization framework of functional development and propose that such a framework may provide insights into how individual differences at several levels of observation (genetics, white matter tract structure, functional organization of language, cultural organization of writing systems) impact the emergence of neural systems involved in reading ability and disability.

Abstract: Publisher Summary The two most robust findings in studies of eye movements and reading are that (1) fixation time on a word is shorter if the reader has a valid preview of the word prior to fixating it, and (2) fixation time is shorter when the word is easy to identify and understand. Word recognition processes seem to be reflected quite straightforwardly in the eye movement record. In contrast, eye movements seem to reflect sentence comprehension processes in a more varied fashion. This chapter reviews the major word identification factors that affect eye movements and describe the role these eye movement phenomena have played in developing theories of eye movements in reading. The chapter tabulates and summarizes 100 reports of how syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and world-knowledge factors affect eye movements during reading in an initial attempt to identify order in how different types of challenges to comprehension are reflected in eye movements. The chapter reviews findings that have demonstrated effects due to (1) word frequency, (2) word familiarity, (3) age-of-acquisition, (4) number of meanings, (5) morphology, (6) contextual constraint, and (7) plausibility.

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of prior knowledge and text structure on cognitive processes during comprehension of scientific texts. To investigate the processes online, we used a thinkaloud methodology in Experiment 1 and a reading time methodology in Experiment 2. In both experiments, we obtained offline comprehension measures and measures of individual differences in working memory and need for cognition. Across the two experiments, the results indicated that readers adjust their processing as a function of the interaction between prior knowledge and text structure. In particular, adjustments in the actual processes that take place during reading were observed for readers who had erroneous prior knowledge, but only when they read a text that was structured to explicitly refute this prior knowledge. Furthermore, the results showed that readers’ memory for the text was affected by differences in their prior knowledge, independently of text structure. These findings contribute to our understanding of the relation between different factors that are associated with comprehension of scientific texts and have implications for theories of comprehension and conceptual change.

Abstract: Although there is evidence for a close link between the development of oral vocabulary and reading comprehension, less clear is whether oral vocabulary skills relate to the development of word-level reading skills This study investigated vocabulary and literacy in 81 children aged 8 to 10 years In regression analyses, vocabulary accounted for unique variance in exception word reading and reading comprehension, but not text reading accuracy, decoding, or regular word reading Consistent with these data, children with poor reading comprehension exhibited oral vocabulary weaknesses and read fewer exception words correctly These findings demonstrate that oral vocabulary is associated with some, but not all, reading skills Results are discussed in terms of current models of reading development

Abstract: This paper presents an integrated framework for studying organizational spaces. It suggests that existing research can be classed into three categories: studies of space as distance; studies of space as the materialization of power relations; and studies of space as experience. These approaches are drawn together using Henri Lefebvre's theory of spatial production to argue that an adequate understanding of organizational spaces would investigate how they are practised, planned and imagined. Moreover, an adequate theory of space would account for multiple spatial levels, or scales. To illustrate the potential of the synthetic framework, a reading of three exemplary studies of multiple organizational spaces, from social anthropology and economic geography, is presented. The paper concludes by presenting a research agenda that indicates how data collection and analysis in established fields such as employee relations and international business might become more 'space sensitive' by integrating such theorized cross-scale analysis.

Abstract: . A synthesis of the extant research on extensive early reading interventions for students with reading difficulties and disabilities is provided. Findings from 18 studies published between 1995 and 2005 revealed positive outcomes for students participating in extensive interventions. Results indicated higher effects for studies providing intervention to students in the smallest group sizes as well as providing intervention early (grades K-1). No differences in overall outcomes were revealed between studies implementing highly standardized interventions or interventions with less standardized implementation. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. ********** Response to intervention (RTI) provides a framework for accomplishing several highly valued goals: (a) early identification of students at risk for academic difficulties through universal screening practices; (b) early and targeted intervention for students at risk; (c) ongoing progress monitoring--more frequently for students most at risk and less frequently for typical achieving students; (d) use of increasingly more intensive tiers of research-based instruction to meet students' needs; and (e) improved confidence that students referred for special education who participated in evidence-based RTI models are less likely to be students who are academic casualties from inadequate or inappropriate instruction (Fletcher, Coulter, Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004). Although school psychologists embrace these goals conceptually, decisions related to effective implementation of these goals are often more problematic. Perhaps the most challenging aspects of implementation in RTI models are the decisions about what types of interventions should be implemented; the amount of time interventions should be implemented; who should provide the interventions; and whether a uniform, more standardized approach to instruction should be implemented or whether schools should use a less standardized, or more individualized, approach (Burns, Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005; Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003; Reschly, 2005; Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). Fundamentally, an evidence-based approach to addressing these questions would be aligned with the guidelines as well as recommended practice (see, for review, Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002). Purpose and Rationale for Synthesis This article provides a synthesis of research aimed at exploring some of the fundamental questions related to effective implementation of RTI. We synthesized the extant research on extensive early reading interventions to examine several issues related to RTI implementation: (a) outcomes for students with reading difficulties or disabilities after participation in extensive early reading interventions, and (b) features of interventions associated with high effect sizes, including instructional group size, duration, and level of standardization. We recognized that to adequately address these questions would require a relatively large population of studies that addressed a common academic problem. For this reason, we selected studies that represented early reading interventions (kindergarten through Grade 3). Reading interventions were selected because of the following: (a) most students are referred for learning disabilities that are attributed to difficulties with reading (Lyon, 1995); (b) most students identified as learning disabled have reading as an Individualized Education Program goal (Lerner, 2000); (c) there is a substantial data base of studies on early reading interventions (e.g., McCardle & Chhabra, 2004; Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001); and (d) many of the recent initiatives at the state level (e.g., Alabama Reading Initiative, Florida Reading Initiative, Texas Reading Initiative) and policies at the federal level (Reading First and Early Reading First programs within the No Child Left Behind Act, 2001) were based on findings from these early reading studies. …

Abstract: We present a theoretical and empirical explication of the intervention of Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) that is designed to increase students' reading comprehension and motivation for reading. The framework specifies a set of five motivational constructs that represent goals for the instructional intervention. Necessary cognitive goals in reading are also presented. For this intervention, the five instructional practices of relevance, choice, success, collaboration, and thematic unit that are prominent in CORI are portrayed as components that are aligned with motivational constructs. The impact of CORI on some of the motivational processes, cognitive competencies, and reading comprehension are presented in the form of a meta-analysis of 11 CORI studies with 75 effect sizes on 20 outcome variables. The CORI motivational intervention is compared to laboratory treatments and other field studies.

Abstract: List of Strategy Lessons Foreword by Donald Graves Acknowledgments Introduction to the Second Edition Part I: The Foundation of Meaning Reading is Thinking Reading is Strategic Effective Comprehension Instruction: Teaching, Tone, and Assessment Tools for Active Literacy: The Nuts and Bolts of Comprehension Instruction Text Matters: Choice Makes a Difference Part II: Strategy Lessons Monitoring Comprehension: The Inner Conversation Activating and Connecting to Background Knowledge: A Bridge from the New to the Known Questioning: The Strategy That Propels Readers Forward Visualizing and Inferring: Making What's Implicit Explicit Determining Importance in Text: The Nonfiction Connection Summarizing and Synthesizing Information: The Evolution of Thought Part III: Comprehension Across the Curriculum Content Literacy: Reading for Understanding in Social Studies and Science Topic Studies: A Framework for Research and Exploration Reading to Understand Textbooks The Genre of Test Reading Afterword Part IV: Resources That Support Strategy Instruction Appendixes Great Books for Teaching Content in History, Social Studies, Science, Music, Art, and Literacy Magazines, Newspapers, and Websites Professional Journals for Selection of Children's Books Assessment Interview with Fourth Graders Anchor Charts for the Comprehension Strategies References: Children's Books References: Professional References & Adult Resources Index

Abstract: Fact-related information contained in fictional narratives may induce substantial changes in readers' real-world beliefs. Current models of persuasion through fiction assume that these effects occur because readers are psychologically transported into the fictional world of the narrative. Contrary to general dual-process models of persuasion, models of persuasion through fiction also imply that persuasive effects of fictional narratives are persistent and even increase over time (absolute sleeper effect). In an experiment designed to test this prediction, 81 participants read either a fictional story that contained true as well as false assertions about real-world topics or a control story. There were large short-term persuasive effects of false information, and these effects were even larger for a group with a 2-week assessment delay. Belief certainty was weakened immediately after reading but returned to baseline level after 2 weeks, indicating that beliefs acquired by reading fictional narratives are i...

Abstract: Many children struggle to learn to read, and these difficulties can persist well into adulthood. To address this problem, researchers have investigated the processes that underlie reading. An informative body of work has thus identified basic skills (e.g., decoding, vocabulary knowledge) as necessary for successful reading. Researchers also have begun to examine comprehension skills and their contributions to the reading process. In this article we describe research from the cognitive sciences on the processes that underlie higher-order, coherence-oriented comprehension to provide an empirically and theoretically driven perspective for investigating struggling readers' difficulties. We show that this perspective is particularly beneficial in the development and assessment of instructional approaches by relating it to existing, effective interventions. Finally, we demonstrate how our own research activities have derived from this perspective and how preliminary findings extend our understanding of readers'...

Abstract: There is provided in one embodiment an indicia reading terminal that can execute a spatial measurement mode of operation in which the indicia reading terminal can determine a dimension of an article in a field of view of the indicia reading terminal and/or determine other spatial information. In determining a dimension of an article, an indicia reading terminal can utilize setup data determined in a setup mode of operation and/or data determined utilizing the setup data.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of past and current research regarding language and literacy development in children with mild to severe hearing impairment. A related goal is to identify gaps in the empirical literature and suggest future research directions. Included in the language development review are studies of semantics (vocabulary, novel word learning, and conceptual categories), morphology, and syntax. The literacy section begins by considering dimensions of literacy and the ways in which hearing impairment may influence them. It is followed by a discussion of existing evidence on reading and writing, and highlights key constructs that need to be addressed for a comprehensive understanding of literacy in these children.

Abstract: David Silverman's second edition provides a refreshing introduction to doing and debating qualitative research. An antidote to the standard textbook, this new edition shows how research can be methodologically inventive, empirically rigorous, theoretically-alive and practically relevant. Using materials ranging from photographs to novels and newspaper stories, the book demonstrates that getting to grips with qualitative methods means asking ourselves fundamental questions about how we are influenced by contemporary culture. By drawing on examples from websites and social media in the new edition, Silverman's text acknowledges how our social worlds are changing and explores new arenas for data collection. A new Glossary of Received Ideas aims to challenge conventional understandings of terms central to qualitative research and will inform, amuse and stimulate readers. This book is perfect pre-course reading for those new to research as well as seasoned researchers who want to reflect on their practice.

Abstract: Suddenly, comics are everywhere: a newly matured art form, filling bookshelves with brilliant, innovative work and shaping the ideas and images of the rest of contemporary culture. In Reading Comics, critic Douglas Wolk shows us why and how. Wolk illuminates the most dazzling creators of modern comics-from Alan Moore to Alison Bechdel to Chris Ware-and explains their roots, influences, and where they fit into the pantheon of art. As accessible to the hardcore fan as to the curious newcomer, Reading Comics is the first book for people who want to know not just which comics are worth reading, but ways to think and talk and argue about them.

Abstract: we scientists rely on statistics. In part, this is because we use statistics to report our own science and to interpret the published science of others. For some of us, reporting and interpreting statistics can be like reading an unfamiliar language: it is awkward to do, and it is easy to

Abstract: Self-taught mathematician George Boole (1815–1864) published a pamphlet in 1847 – The Mathematical Analysis of Logic – that launched him into history as one of the nineteenth century's most original thinkers. In the introduction, Boole closely adheres to two themes: the fundamental unity of all science and the close relationship between logic and mathematics. In the first chapter, he examines first principles of formal logic, and then moves on to Aristotelian syllogism, hypotheticals, and the properties of elective functions. Boole uses this pamphlet to answer a well-known logician of the day, Sir William Hamilton, who believed that only philosophers could study 'the science of real existence', while all mathematicians could do was measure things. In essence, The Mathematical Analysis of Logic humbly chides Hamilton and asks him to rethink his bias. Boole is compelling reading for anyone interested in intellectual history and the science of the mind.

Abstract: Purpose Some researchers (F. R. Vellutino, F. M. Scanlon, & M. S. Tanzman, 1994) have argued that the different domains comprising language (e.g., phonology, semantics, and grammar) may influence r...

Abstract: Background: Analyses from the JyvaskylaLongitudinal Study of Dyslexia project show that the key childhood predictors (phonological awareness, short-term memory, rapid naming, expressive vocabu- lary, pseudoword repetition, and letter naming) of dyslexia differentiate the group with reading disability (n ¼ 46) and the group without reading problems (n ¼ 152) at the end of the 2nd grade. These measures were employed at the ages of 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5 years and information regarding the familial risk of dyslexia was used to find the most sensitive indices of an individual child's risk for reading disabil- ity. Methods: Age-specific and across-age logistic regression models were constructed to produce the risk indices. The predictive ability of the risk indices was explored using the ROC (receiver operating curve) plot. Information from the logistic models was further utilised in illustrating the risk with probability curve presentations. Results: The logistic regression models with familial risk, letter knowledge, phonological awareness and RAN provided a prediction probability above .80 (area under ROC). Conclusions: The models including familial risk status and the three above-mentioned measures offer a rough screening procedure for estimating an individual child's risk for reading disability at the age of 3.5 years. Probability curves are presented as a method of illustrating the risk. Key- words: Longitudinal study, dyslexia, reading disability, phonological awareness, letter knowledge, rapid naming, prediction, estimation, childhood.

Abstract: Readers structure narrative text into a series of events in order to understand and remember the text. In this study, subjects read brief narratives describing everyday activities while brain activity was recorded with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Subjects later read the stories again to divide them into large and small events. During the initial reading, points later identified as boundaries between events were associated with transient increases in activity in a number of brain regions whose activity was mediated by changes in the narrated situation, such as changes in characters' goals. These results indicate that the segmentation of narrated activities into events is a spontaneous part of reading, and that this process of segmentation is likely dependent on neural responses to changes in the narrated situation.

Abstract: Within the connectionist triangle model of reading aloud, interaction between semantic and phonological representations occurs for all words but is particularly important for correct pronunciation of lower frequency exception words. This framework therefore predicts that (a) semantic dementia, which compromises semantic knowledge, should be accompanied by surface dyslexia, a frequency-modulated deficit in exception word reading, and (b) there should be a significant relationship between the severity of semantic degradation and the severity of surface dyslexia. The authors evaluated these claims with reference to 100 observations of reading data from 51 cases of semantic dementia. Surface dyslexia was rampant, and a simple composite semantic measure accounted for half of the variance in low-frequency exception word reading. Although in 3 cases initial testing revealed a moderate semantic impairment but normal exception word reading, all of these became surface dyslexic as their semantic knowledge deteriorated further. The connectionist account attributes such cases to premorbid individual variation in semantic reliance for accurate exception word reading. These results provide a striking demonstration of the association between semantic dementia and surface dyslexia, a phenomenon that the authors have dubbed SD-squared.

Abstract: This article reports on the results of a longitudinal investigation of the reading development of a sample of 824 children (406 girls, 418 boys). The sample included 689 native English-speaking (L1) children and 135 English-language learners (ELLs) representing 33 different native languages. In kindergarten and 4th grade, children's word reading, spelling, phonological processing, syntactic awareness, and working memory skills were assessed with standardized and experimental measures. In addition, word reading was assessed from kindergarten through 4th grade, and reading comprehension in 4th grade. Comparisons of reading skills between the ELLs and the L1 speakers demonstrated that despite slightly lower performance of the ELLs on several kindergarten tasks, differences at 4th grade were negligible. Fourth-grade word reading was predicted by the same kindergarten tasks for both language groups, and prediction of reading comprehension differed by only 1 task. Finally, the trajectory of word reading was nonlinear for both groups, although predictors of this trajectory differed between groups. The findings suggest that early identification models established through research with L1 speakers are appropriate for identifying ELLs at risk for reading difficulties.