Abstract: The purpose of this article was to examine the logic and the empirical data supporting the proposition that intelligence tests are not necessary for the definition of a learning disability. Four assumptions of the use of IQ test scores in the definition of learning disabilities were examined. These assumptions were (a) IQ tests measure intelligence; (b) intelligence and achievement are independent, and the presence of a learning disability will not affect IQ scores; (c) IQ scores predict reading, and children with low IQ scores should be poor readers; and (d) reading disabled children with different IQ scores have different cognitive processes and information skills. It was argued that IQ scores measure factual knowledge, expressive language abilities, and short-term memory, among other skills, and that because children with learning disabilities have deficits in these areas, their scores may be spuriously low. It was also shown that some children with low IQ scores can be good readers, indicating that low IQ scores do not necessarily result in poor reading. Empirical evidence was presented that poor readers at a variety of IQ levels show similar reading, spelling, language, and memory deficits. On logical and empirical grounds, IQ test scores are not necessary for the definition of learning disabilities.

Abstract: second language reading has begun to focus, among other things, on readers' strategies. In the same way that investigating speakers' communicative strategies reveals the ways speakers manage oral communication, comprehension, input, and thus, ultimately, acquisition (Wenden & Rubin), reading strategies are of interest for what they reveal about the way readers manage their interaction with written text and how these strategies are related to text comprehension. Since the 1970s there has been no shortage of L2 learning theorists advocating teaching students to use a variety of reading strategies in order to read better.' These strategies run the gamut from the traditionally recognized reading skills of skimming and scanning, contextual guessing or skipping unknown words, tolerating ambiguity, reading for meaning, critical reading, and making inferences, to more recently recognized strategies such as building and activating appropriate background knowledge (Zvetina) and recognizing text structure (Block).2 Less common have been empirical investigations into reading strategies actually used by successful and unsuccessful second language learners (Hosenfeld; Hauptman; Knight, Padron & Waxman; Sarig; Block; Barnett). In exploratory, descriptive investigations of small numbers of individual learners using think-aloud techniques, studies by both Hosenfeld and Block identified apparent relations between certain types of reading strategies and successful or unsuccessful foreign or second language reading. For example, Hosenfeld's successful reader: 1) kept the meaning of the passage in mind during reading; 2) read in "broad phrases"; 3) skipped words viewed as unimportant to total phrase meaning; and 4) had a positive self-concept as a reader. By contrast, Hosenfeld's unsuccessful reader: 1) lost the meaning of sentences as soon as they were decoded; 2) read in short phrases; 3) seldom skipped words as unimportant, viewing words as "equal" in terms of their contribution to total phrase meaning; and 4) had a negative selfconcept as a reader. Block, in a study focused on generally nonproficient readers, found that four characteristics seem to differentiate more

Abstract: Although biliteracy is common worldwide, relatively little scholarly work has attended explicitly to it. This review draws from the literatures on literacy, bilingualism, and the teaching of reading, writing, and second and foreign languages to propose a framework for understanding biliteracy. It argues that the complex array of possible biliteracy configurations can be accounted for by understanding biliteracy in terms of a series of interrelated continua. These continua define the contexts, individual development, and media of biliteracy, and are as follows: micro-macro, oral-literate, monolingual-bilingual, reception-production, oral language-written language, first and second language transfer, simultaneous-successive exposure, similar-dissimilar language structures, and convergent-divergent scripts. An understanding of the intersecting and nested nature of the continua has implications for teaching and research in biliteracy.

Abstract: Recent research in second language reading has focused on metacognition, literally, cognition of cognition. These studies investigate metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and the relationships among perception of strategies, strategy use, and reading comprehension. Strategy research suggests that less competent learners may improve their skills through training in strategies evidenced by more successful learners. Relatively little research on metacognitive strategy training has been done in a second language context or, more specifically, in second language reading. This article reports a study of metacognitive strategy training for reading in ESL. Strategy training was provided to experimental groups. Control groups received no strategy training, but participated in pre-and posttesting. Several research questions are addressed: “Does metacognitive strategy training enhance L2 reading?” If so, “Does one type of strategy training facilitate L2 reading better than another?” “How is the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training related to the learning styles of the students?” Results show that metacognitive strategy training is effective in enhancing second language reading, and that the effectiveness of one type of training versus another may depend upon the way reading is measured. Further, our results show that the effectiveness of the training is related to differences in the learning styles of the students.

Abstract: This book is about the nature of human error and the implications for design of modern industrial installations. It is the first book discussing the topic from the point of view of cognitive psychology, social psychology and safety engineering. Advanced students, researchers and professional psychologists in industrial psychology/human factors and engineers or systems designers concerned with man-machine systems will find this book essential reading.

Abstract: Eye movement records have been used profitably to study on-line comprehension processes in reading. We present some basic facts about eye movements during reading, emphasising issues concerning the use of eye movement data to infer cognitive processes that are involved in (1) word processing, (2) syntactic parsing, and (3) higher-order processes. We review research on each of these topics and present new data dealing with word processing and high-order processes. We conclude that the analysis of eye movement records provides a great deal of useful information about on-line processing and that eye movement recording is a good way to study many critical issues concerning language comprehension processes.

Abstract: Here is the first survey of the surviving evidence for the growth, development, and influence of the Neoplatonist allegorical reading of the Iliad and Odyssey. Professor Lamberton argues that this tradition of reading was to create new demands on subsequent epic and thereby alter permanently the nature of European epic. The Neoplatonist reading was to be decisive in the birth of allegorical epic in late antiquity and forms the background for the next major extension of the epic tradition found in Dante.

Abstract: Proper application of the alphabetic principle rests on an awareness of the internal phonological (and morphophonological) structure of words that the alphabet represents. Unfortunately for the would-be reader-writer, such awareness is not an automatic consequence of speaking a language, because the biological specialization for speech manages the production and perception of these structures below the level of consciousness. Not surprisingly, then, awareness of phonological structures is normally lacking in preliterate children and adults; the degree to which it does exist is the best single predictor of success in learning to read; lack of awareness usually yields to appropriate instruction; and such instruction makes for better readers. That some children have particular difficulty in developing phonological awareness (and in learning to read) is apparently to be attributed to a general deficiency in the phonological component of their natural capacity for language. Thus, these children are also relatively poor in short-term memory for verbal information, in perceiving speech in noise, in producing complex speech patterns, and in finding the words that name objects. All children will benefit from instruction that is intelligently designed to show them what the alphabet is about.

Abstract: Twenty adults were asked to read a three-paragraph expository text on differences among insects. Information in the text had been rated for importance and interestingness. Half of the adults read the text with "seductive details" (propositions presenting interesting, but unimportant, information), half without. After reading, the adults recalled the important information (a macroprocessing task), rated the text for overall interestingness, reported the single most interesting piece of information read, and matched pictures of animals on the basis of differences mentioned in text (a microprocessing task). The adults presented with seductive details in text were significantly less adept than their peers at including three main ideas in their recall protocols. Microprocessing performance and interestingness ratings were unaffected by text condition. In a second study, with 36 seventh graders, macroprocessing performance in general was weak. Students presented with seductive details in text were significantly...

Abstract: This naturalistic study investigated what happened in liter- ature study groups composed of 5th and 6th grade students and led by teachers in training. Children chose the novel they would like to read and met with group leaders to discuss their reading (2 days per week, 30 minutes per day) over a 4-5 week period. Teachers were en- couraged to be fellow participants in the discussion groups rather than monitors of reading comprehension. Data were field notes, transcrip- tions of audiotapes of individual sessions, and teacher journals. An analysis of the data revealed that young children of varying abilities participated in rich discussions of works of literature in which they ap- peared to be capable of 1) articulating their construction of simple meaning, but also changing it as they heard alternate views; 2) sharing personal stories inspired by the reading or discussion, often in poign- ant and revealing ways which triggered identification by other group members; 3) participating as active readers - predicting and hypoth- esizing and confirming or disconfirming their predictions as they read; and 4) valuing and evaluating the text as literature. The title of this piece comes from a remark Jim Higgins made to a group of teachers when he was at Arizona State University as a visiting scholar in the spring of 1985. He was describing how literature is used in American classrooms and he said something like "what you most often get are gentle inquisitions, when what you really want are grand conversations." Bryant Fillion (1981) echoed this theme with his remark that when he listened to tapes of literature classes - his own as well as others - he was struck by how often they sounded like inquisitions rather than real discussions. Almost all of children's experiences with literature in elementary schools today are in this inquisition mode. All popular basal series provide students with readers containing stories (many excerpted from fine liter- ature), and teachers with questions (and accompanying answers) to ask about those stories. Children gather together in groups to discuss the story, but the discussion usually consists of the teacher asking the ques-

Abstract: Bringle, R. G., & Buunk, B. (1985). Jealousy and social behavior: A review of person, relationship, and situational determinants. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Self, situations, and social behavior: Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 241-264). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hupka, R. B. (1989, May). Components of the typical response to romantic jealousy situations. In G. L. White (Chair), Themesfor progress in jealousy research. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Second Iowa Conference on Personal Relationships, Iowa City.

Abstract: Four experiments studied the comprehension of sentences with relations between empty positions and phrases displaced from these positions (“gaps” and 'fillers). Evidence from self-paced reading and end-of-sentence acceptability judgement tasks confirms previous research indicating that the parser prefers to assign an identified filler as the argument of a verb immediately, rather than waiting to check the input for a lexical item of the expected category. We propose that the parser follows an “active filler strategy” which ranks the option of a gap above other options in the domain of an identified filler. The preference for gap over lexical item was evidenced even when a clause boundary separated filler and gap, but the need in this case to carry a filler across a clause boundary created substantial processing difficulty. We propose that, in processing a “long” movement (across more than one clause), the parser must assign the filler to a special “non-argument” position in a successive cylic fas...

Abstract: To examine the effects of whole language and language experience approaches on beginning reading achievement, a quantitative synthesis was performed on two data bases: the five projects conducted as part of the United States Office of Education (USOE) first grade studies and 46 additional studies comparing basal reading approaches to whole language or language experience approaches. The results of both analyses suggest that, overall, whole language/language experience approaches and basal reader approaches are approximately equal in their effects, with several exceptions. First, whole language/language experience approaches may be more effective in kindergarten than in first grade. Second, they may produce stronger effects on measures of word recognition than on measures of reading comprehension. Third, more recent studies show a trend toward stronger effects for the basal reading program relative to whole language/language experience methods. Fourth, whole language/language experience approaches produce ...

Abstract: Many reading comprehension strategies have been proposed, but only some have proven potent with elementary school children. Strategies that are supported by research evidence are discussed, and, thus, a fairly small set of strategies is recommended. The research on summarization, representational- and mnemonic-imagery, story-grammar, question-generation, question-answering, and prior-knowledge activation strategies is reviewed here. Effective teaching of these strategies is also discussed, with particular emphasis on direct explanation approaches to strategy instruction. Thorough teaching of a few effective reading strategies can be defended based on available research evidence; this approach can be incorporated into ongoing content-based instruction, with development of reading comprehension strategies occurring throughout the school day and across the curriculum.

Abstract: This article provides an overview and synthesis of the current literature on metacognition and comprehension monitoring among adult readers. It is organized around three major research questions: (1) How do adults conceptualize their own comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities? (2) How effectively do adults evaluate and regulate their ongoing efforts to understand? (3) How successfully do adults assess the final products of their comprehension efforts? Cutting across these broad issues are questions concerning metacognitive differences as a function of reading ability, academic success, domain expertise, developmental level, and task variables. The research reveals that adults' conceptions of how they comprehend and how they monitor their comprehension are quite variable. In general, those who have more expertise, who are better readers, and who are more successful students seem to have greater awareness and control of their own cognitive activities while reading. The research also reveals that adults evaluate and regulate their ongoing efforts to understand, although there is considerable room for improvement in these skills. Finally, the research shows that adults are remarkably unsuccessful at assessing how well they have comprehended a text and whether or not they are ready to take a test on the material. The article closes with a discussion of recent intervention efforts aimed at enhancing the metacognitive skills of adult readers.

Abstract: Signals are writing devices that emphasize aspects of a text's content or structure without adding to the content of the the text. Findings are reviewed for studies of several different types of signaling devices, including: titles, headings, previews, overviews, summaries, typographical cues, recall sentences, number signals, importance indicators, and summary indicators. Most investigations have examined how the presence of signals in a text affects subsequent memory for the text. Virtually all types of signals produce better memory for information they cue in a text, whereas memory for unsignaled information often is unaffected. Less attention has been directed to signaling effects on other cognitive processes, such as attention, basic reading processes, and comprehension. It is argued that an understanding of how signals influence these processes will contribute to the application of signaling research to reading and writing instruction and to our general understanding of reading.

Abstract: IN discourse synthesis readers become writers, creating new texts by selecting, organizing, and connecting content from source texts. In this study of discourse synthesis, accomplished and less accomplished readers in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades in U.S. schools were given a report-writing task. Over a 3-day period in their English/language arts classes, the 60 students in the study wrote informational reports composed of content they selected from three source texts (encyclopedia articles on a single topic) as well as content they added. Text analyses showed differences associated with both reading ability and grade level in how students selected content from the sources and provided connections between ideas in their reports. In addition, differences associated only with reading ability were apparent in students' organization of the content. Differences between readers were manifested on measures of task management as well as on features of the texts they produced: The accomplished readers developed more elaborate written plans and spent more time on the task. The authors conclude that general reading ability and success at synthesizing overlap to a great extent, and suggest that success at synthesis may be related to cognitive factors commonly associated with comprehension, such as sensitivity to text structure.

Abstract: Pictures are used in churches so that those who are ignorant of letters may at least read by seeing on the walls what they cannot read in books (codicibus). What writing (scriptura) does for the literate, a picture does for the illiterate looking at it, because the ignorant see in it what they ought to do; those who do not know letters read in it. Thus, especially for the nations [gentibus], a picture takes the place of reading. … Therefore you ought not to have broken that which was placed in the church in order not to be adored but solely in order to instruct the minds of the ignorant.1

Abstract: In three experiments, native Cantonese speakers were asked to read words aloud, name pictures, and translate words. In the study, subjects with different degrees of proficiency in their nonnative language were used (i.e., proficient subjects, adult beginners, and second- and fourth-grade child beginners). The results show that all subjects were more efficient in reading words than in naming pictures when responding in their native language. When the response was in the nonnative language, the proficient subjects were equally efficient in both translating and picture-naming tasks. For the adult beginners, however, translating was faster than picture naming, whereas naming was faster than translating for the child beginners. These results were consistent with the idea that proficient subjects could directly access the meanings of words in the nonnative language, whereas beginners tended to use either corresponding words in the native language (i.e., the adult beginners) or pictorial representations (i.e., the child beginners) as media for such end. These results thus suggest that the proficiency of the nonnative language and the age or method of acquisition of the language are important determinants for the pattern of lexical processing in the nonnative language.

Abstract: This major reference work fills a need long recognized in neurolinguistics: a source for analyzable speech transcripts from agrammatic aphasic patients that provides detailed grammatical descriptions and distributional analyses. This 3-volume set is unique in that it presents narrative speech from carefully selected clinically comparable patients, speakers of 14 languages, and parallel narratives by normal speakers. For each of the 14 languages there is a case presentation chapter analyzing and discussing the language of agrammatic patients, followed by primary data, which are organized as follows: running text of speech by two patients; interlinear morphemic translations of those texts; running text of speech elicited from two normal control subjects (plus interlinear translations); tables and figures analyzing distributional properties of the patients' speech; results of comprehension tests of the patients; transcriptions of patients' oral reading and writing samples. Neurological information is included with the case presentations, and a short grammatical sketch of each language is added to make the work on all languages accessible even to those who only read English. Language findings are presented for English, Dutch, German, Icelandic, Swedish, French, Italian, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Hindi, Finnish, Hebrew, Chinese and Japanese.The book is an indispensable reference work for all linguists, psycholinguists and neurolinguists who wish to test their theories against a massive body of data.

Abstract: ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines for Reading have brought attention to the complex array of skills which constitute L2 reading proficiency as well as to issues surrounding the development of reading proficiency. Consequently, a small but increasing number of researchers, curriculum designers, and teachers are now thinking of ways in which to help L2 readers develop such skills as making and confirming predictions, creating pre-reading expectations, identifying a text's macro-structure, and using textual redundancy, context, signalling cues, and background knowledge to enhance comprehension. One widely recommended method of improving learners' ability to comprehend L2 texts is explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies.' This study evaluates the effect of such instruction on intermediate-level French

Abstract: An analysis of over 40,000 eye fixations made by college students during reading indicates that the frequency of immediately refixating a word following an initial eye fixation on it varies with the location ofthat fixation. The refixation frequency is lowest near the center of the word, posi-tively accelerating with distance from the center. The data are well fit by a parabolic function. Assuming that refixation frequency is related to the frequency of successful word identification, the observed curvilinear relation results naturally from models that postulate a linear decrease in visual information with retinal eccentricity. A single letter difference in fixation location in a word can make a sizeable difference in the likelihood of refixating that word. The effects of word length and cultural frequency on the frequency of refixating are also examined.

Abstract: The quantity of literature generated each year on the subject of infantile autism might lead one to believe that autism must be among the most frequent of disorders, although it occurs in only one of every 2500 children. Here is yet another book, but this volume distinguishes itself as a particularly useful review of what is new and interesting in the field. It is pleasing to find the names of so many creative young investigators among its contributors and to see their various ideas presented side by side in a single volume. Roughly 70% of autistic persons are mentally retarded, and, like nonautistic retarded persons, they show varying degrees of impairment in learning vocabulary and grammar in their early years. Subsequently, they have difficulty mastering reading, writing, and arithmetic in school. Such cognitive deficits do not, however, in and of themselves, explain why someone is "autistic." A person is autistic,