Reactive intermediate

Abstract: Reactive oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur species, referred to as ROS, RNS, and RSS, respectively, are produced during normal cell function and in response to various stimuli. An imbalance in the metabolism of these reactive intermediates results in the phenomenon known as oxidative stress. If left unchecked, oxidative molecules can inflict damage on all classes of biological macromolecules and eventually lead to cell death. Indeed, sustained elevated levels of reactive species have been implicated in the etiology (e.g., atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes) or the progression (e.g., stroke, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders) of a number of human diseases.1 Over the past several decades, however, a new paradigm has emerged in which the aforementioned species have also been shown to function as targeted, intracellular second messengers with regulatory roles in an array of physiological processes.2 Against this backdrop, it is not surprising that considerable ongoing efforts are aimed at elucidating the role that these reactive intermediates play in health and disease. Site-specific, covalent modification of proteins represents a prominent molecular mechanism for transforming an oxidant signal into a biological response. Amino acids that are candidates for reversible modification include cysteines whose thiol (i.e., sulfhydryl) side chain is deprotonated at physiological pH, which is an important attribute for enhancing reactivity. While reactive species can modify other amino acids (e.g., histidine, methionine, tryptophan, and tyrosine), this Review will focus exclusively on cysteine, whose identity as cellular target or “sensor” of reactive intermediates is most prevalent and established.3 Oxidation of thiols results in a range of sulfur-containing products, not just disulfide bridges, as typically presented in biochemistry textbooks. An overview of the most relevant forms of oxidized sulfur species found in vivo is presented in Chart 1. Open in a separate window Chart 1 Biologically Relevant Cysteine Chemotypesa aRed, irreversible modifications. Green, unique enzyme intermediates. Note: Additional modifications can form as enzyme intermediates including thiyl radicals, disulfides, and persulfides.

Abstract: High-valent iron(IV)-oxo species have been implicated as the key reactive intermediates in the catalytic cycles of dioxygen activation by heme and non-heme iron enzymes. Our understanding of the enzymatic reactions has improved greatly via investigation of spectroscopic and chemical properties of heme and non-heme iron(IV)-oxo complexes. In this Account, reactivities of synthetic iron(IV)-oxo porphyrin pi-cation radicals and mononuclear non-heme iron(IV)-oxo complexes in oxygenation reactions have been discussed as chemical models of cytochrome P450 and non-heme iron enzymes. These results demonstrate how mechanistic developments in biomimetic research can help our understanding of dioxygen activation and oxygen atom transfer reactions in nature.

Abstract: The present review offers an overview of the current approaches for the photochemical and photocatalytic generation of reactive intermediates and their application in the formation of carbon–carbon bonds. Valuable synthetic targets are accessible, including arylation processes, formation of both carbo- and heterocycles, alpha- and beta-functionalization of carbonyls, and addition reactions onto double and triple bonds. According to the recent advancements in the field of visible/solar light catalysis, a significant part of the literature reported herein involves radical ions and radicals as key intermediates, with particular attention to the most recent examples. Synthetic application of carbenes, biradicals/radical pairs and carbocations have been also reported.