Abstract: The global use of petroleum hydrocarbons for energy and raw materials in various applications has increased with extensive release of a wide variety of contaminants into the environment, affecting soil, surface water and groundwater. The effect results to numerous health, ecological and environmental issues. However, treatment of contamination and pollution caused by petroleum hydrocarbons is a huge and laborious work. It involves several in situ or ex situ treatments comprising containment, separation and destruction which include biological, chemical, physico-chemical, thermal and heat, electric and electromagnetic, acoustic and ultrasonic treatment methods. These treatment methods involve several other techniques and strategies as listed in this review. The health risks pose by petroleum hydrocarbon pollution have driven scientists to research, develop and implement risk-based remediation strategies for restoration and reclamation of affected environments. To select the best treatment option for remediation, it is important to comprehend the nature, composition, properties, sources of pollution, type of environment, fate, transport and distribution of the pollutants, mechanism of degradation, interaction and relationships with microorganisms, the intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting remediation. It helps to evaluate and predict the chemical behaviour of the pollutants with the short and long-term effects and mitigate the effects of pollution and limit exposure to the pollutants. Despite the available remediation options for petroleum hydrocarbon management and removal, sufficient and complete remediation can be implemented by adoption of proper approach derived from risk-based management procedure that can be practical, scientifically defensible, widely adapted, sustainable, non-invasive, eco-friendly and cost-efficient. This paper provides an overview of the various remediation and treatment technologies derived from risk-based approaches that are used for isolation, containment, separation, restoration reclamation and remediation of soil, sediments, surface water and groundwater contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons and organic compounds.

Abstract: Aims Long-term exposure of humans to air pollution enhances the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. A novel Global Exposure Mortality Model (GEMM) has been derived from many cohort studies, providing much-improved coverage of the exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5). We applied the GEMM to assess excess mortality attributable to ambient air pollution on a global scale and compare to other risk factors. Methods and results We used a data-informed atmospheric model to calculate worldwide exposure to PM2.5 and ozone pollution, which was combined with the GEMM to estimate disease-specific excess mortality and loss of life expectancy (LLE) in 2015. Using this model, we investigated the effects of different pollution sources, distinguishing between natural (wildfires, aeolian dust) and anthropogenic emissions, including fossil fuel use. Global excess mortality from all ambient air pollution is estimated at 8.8 (7.11-10.41) million/year, with an LLE of 2.9 (2.3-3.5) years, being a factor of two higher than earlier estimates, and exceeding that of tobacco smoking. The global mean mortality rate of about 120 per 100 000 people/year is much exceeded in East Asia (196 per 100 000/year) and Europe (133 per 100 000/year). Without fossil fuel emissions, the global mean life expectancy would increase by 1.1 (0.9-1.2) years and 1.7 (1.4-2.0) years by removing all potentially controllable anthropogenic emissions. Because aeolian dust and wildfire emission control is impracticable, significant LLE is unavoidable. Conclusion Ambient air pollution is one of the main global health risks, causing significant excess mortality and LLE, especially through cardiovascular diseases. It causes an LLE that rivals that of tobacco smoking. The global mean LLE from air pollution strongly exceeds that by violence (all forms together), i.e. by an order of magnitude (LLE being 2.9 and 0.3 years, respectively).

Abstract: Background: Pollution – unwanted waste released to air, water, and land by human activity – is the largest environmental cause of disease in the world today. It is responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths per year, enormous economic losses, erosion of human capital, and degradation of ecosystems. Ocean pollution is an important, but insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled component of global pollution. It poses serious threats to human health and well-being. The nature and magnitude of these impacts are only beginning to be understood. Goals: (1) Broadly examine the known and potential impacts of ocean pollution on human health. (2) Inform policy makers, government leaders, international organizations, civil society, and the global public of these threats. (3) Propose priorities for interventions to control and prevent pollution of the seas and safeguard human health. Methods: Topic-focused reviews that examine the effects of ocean pollution on human health, identify gaps in knowledge, project future trends, and offer evidence-based guidance for effective intervention. Environmental Findings: Pollution of the oceans is widespread, worsening, and in most countries poorly controlled. It is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources. It reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharges. It is often heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coasts of low- and middle-income countries. Plastic is a rapidly increasing and highly visible component of ocean pollution, and an estimated 10 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the seas each year. Mercury is the metal pollutant of greatest concern in the oceans; it is released from two main sources – coal combustion and small-scale gold mining. Global spread of industrialized agriculture with increasing use of chemical fertilizer leads to extension of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected regions. Chemical pollutants are ubiquitous and contaminate seas and marine organisms from the high Arctic to the abyssal depths. Ecosystem Findings: Ocean pollution has multiple negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and these impacts are exacerbated by global climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants reduce photosynthesis in marine microorganisms that generate oxygen. Increasing absorption of carbon dioxide into the seas causes ocean acidification, which destroys coral reefs, impairs shellfish development, dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increases the toxicity of some pollutants. Plastic pollution threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds and accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres. It breaks down into microplastic and nanoplastic particles containing multiple manufactured chemicals that can enter the tissues of marine organisms, including species consumed by humans. Industrial releases, runoff, and sewage increase frequency and severity of HABs, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance. Pollution and sea surface warming are triggering poleward migration of dangerous pathogens such as the Vibrio species. Industrial discharges, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, and sewage contribute to global declines in fish stocks. Human Health Findings: Methylmercury and PCBs are the ocean pollutants whose human health effects are best understood. Exposures of infants in utero to these pollutants through maternal consumption of contaminated seafood can damage developing brains, reduce IQ and increase children’s risks for autism, ADHD and learning disorders. Adult exposures to methylmercury increase risks for cardiovascular disease and dementia. Manufactured chemicals – phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants, and perfluorinated chemicals, many of them released into the seas from plastic waste – can disrupt endocrine signaling, reduce male fertility, damage the nervous system, and increase risk of cancer. HABs produce potent toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause severe neurological impairment and rapid death. HAB toxins can also become airborne and cause respiratory disease. Pathogenic marine bacteria cause gastrointestinal diseases and deep wound infections. With climate change and increasing pollution, risk is high that Vibrio infections, including cholera, will increase in frequency and extend to new areas. All of the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations in the Global South – environmental injustice on a planetary scale. Conclusions: Ocean pollution is a global problem. It arises from multiple sources and crosses national boundaries. It is the consequence of reckless, shortsighted, and unsustainable exploitation of the earth’s resources. It endangers marine ecosystems. It impedes the production of atmospheric oxygen. Its threats to human health are great and growing, but still incompletely understood. Its economic costs are only beginning to be counted. Ocean pollution can be prevented. Like all forms of pollution, ocean pollution can be controlled by deploying data-driven strategies based on law, policy, technology, and enforcement that target priority pollution sources. Many countries have used these tools to control air and water pollution and are now applying them to ocean pollution. Successes achieved to date demonstrate that broader control is feasible. Heavily polluted harbors have been cleaned, estuaries rejuvenated, and coral reefs restored. Prevention of ocean pollution creates many benefits. It boosts economies, increases tourism, helps restore fisheries, and improves human health and well-being. It advances the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). These benefits will last for centuries. Recommendations: World leaders who recognize the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society and the global public, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be critical to preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding human health. Prevention of pollution from land-based sources is key. Eliminating coal combustion and banning all uses of mercury will reduce mercury pollution. Bans on single-use plastic and better management of plastic waste reduce plastic pollution. Bans on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have reduced pollution by PCBs and DDT. Control of industrial discharges, treatment of sewage, and reduced applications of fertilizers have mitigated coastal pollution and are reducing frequency of HABs. National, regional and international marine pollution control programs that are adequately funded and backed by strong enforcement have been shown to be effective. Robust monitoring is essential to track progress. Further interventions that hold great promise include wide-scale transition to renewable fuels; transition to a circular economy that creates little waste and focuses on equity rather than on endless growth; embracing the principles of green chemistry; and building scientific capacity in all countries. Designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will safeguard critical ecosystems, protect vulnerable fish stocks, and enhance human health and well-being. Creation of MPAs is an important manifestation of national and international commitment to protecting the health of the seas.

Abstract: Water pollution by heavy metals has many human origins, such as the burning of fossil fuels, exhaust gases of vehicles, mining, agriculture, and incineration of solid and liquid wastes. Heavy metals also occur naturally, due to volcanoes, thermal springs activity, erosion, infiltration, etc. This water contamination is a threat for living beings because most heavy metals are toxic to humans and to aquatic life. Hence, it is important to find effective techniques for removing these contaminants in order to reduce the level of pollution of the natural waters. In this work, we have reviewed the toxicity of several heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel), their impact on the environment and human health, and the synthesis and characterization methods of conducting organic polymers (COPs) utilized for the removal of heavy metals from the environment. Therefore, this review was essentially aimed to present recent works and methods (2000–2020) on the environmental impact and toxicity of heavy metals and on the removal of toxic heavy metals, using chemically and/or electrochemically synthesized COPs. We have also stressed the great interest of COPs for the removal of toxic heavy metals from waters.

Abstract: The issue of microplastic pollution emerged from the marine environment, but the terrestrial environment is estimated to receive annually 4–23 times more plastic wastes. Microplastic pollution in t...

Abstract: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic compounds that are widely distributed in the air, water, and soil. Recently, the amount of PAHs derived from fuels and from incomplete combustion processes is increasing. In the aquatic environment, oil spills directly cause PAH pollution and affect marine organisms. Oil spills correlate very well with the major shipping routes. Furthermore, accidental oil spills can seriously impact the marine environment toxicologically. Here, we describe PAH toxicities and related bioaccumulation properties in aquatic animals, including invertebrates. Recent studies have revealed the toxicity of PAHs, including endocrine disruption and tissue-specific toxicity, although researchers have mainly focused on the carcinogenic toxicity of PAHs. We summarize the toxicity of PAHs regarding these aspects. Additionally, the bioaccumulation properties of PAHs for organisms, including invertebrates, are important factors when considering PAH toxicity. In this review, we describe the bioaccumulation properties of PAHs in aquatic animals. Recently, microplastics have been the most concerning environmental problem in the aquatic ecosystem, and the vector effect of microplastics for lipophilic compounds is an emerging environmental issue. Here, we describe the correlation between PAHs and microplastics. Thus, we concluded that PAHs have a toxicity for aquatic animals, indicating that we should emphasize the prevention of aquatic PAH pollution.

Abstract: The problem of environmental pollution is a global concern as it affects the entire ecosystem. There is a cyclic revolution of pollutants from industrial waste or anthropogenic sources into the environment, farmlands, plants, livestock and subsequently humans through the food chain. Most of the toxic metal cases in Africa and other developing nations are a result of industrialization coupled with poor effluent disposal and management. Due to widespread mining activities in South Africa, pollution is a common site with devastating consequences on the health of animals and humans likewise. In recent years, talks on toxic metal pollution had taken center stage in most scientific symposiums as a serious health concern. Very high levels of toxic metals have been reported in most parts of South African soils, plants, animals and water bodies due to pollution. Toxic metals such as Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb), Aluminium (Al), Cadmium (Cd), Nickel (Ni), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) and Arsenic (As) are major mining effluents from tailings which contaminate both the surface and underground water, soil and food, thus affecting biological function, endocrine systems and growth. Environmental toxicity in livestock is traceable to pesticides, agrochemicals and toxic metals. In this review, concerted efforts were made to condense the information contained in literature regarding toxic metal pollution and its implications in soil, water, plants, animals, marine life and human health.

Abstract: Environmental pollution is not a new phenomenon, yet it remains the world’s greatest problem facing humanity, and the leading environmental causes of morbidity and mortality. Man’s activities through urbanization, industrialization, mining, and exploration are at the forefront of global environmental pollution. Both developed and developing nations share this burden together, though awareness and stricter laws in developed countries have contributed to a larger extent in protecting their environment. Despite the global attention towards pollution, the impact is still being felt due to its severe long-term consequences. This chapter examines the types of pollution—air, water, and soil; the causes and effects of pollution; and proffers solutions in combating pollution for sustainable environment and health.

Abstract: Air pollution kills nearly 1 million people per year in China. In response, the Chinese government implemented the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP) from 2013 to 2017 which had a significant impact on reducing PM2.5 concentration. However, the health benefits of the APPCAP are not well understood. Here we examine the spatiotemporal dynamics of annual deaths attributable to PM2.5 pollution (DAPP) in China and the contribution from the APPCAP using decomposition analysis. Despite a 36.1% increase in DAPP from 2000 to 2017, The APPCAP-induced improvement in air quality achieved substantial health benefits, with the DAPP in 2017 reduced by 64 thousand (6.8%) compared to 2013. However, the policy is unlikely to result in further major reductions in DAPP and more ambitious policies are required to reduce the health impacts of air pollution by 2030 and meet the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal 3. Chinese government has implemented the air pollution control measure-the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan in 2013, whose effects have not been fully studied. Here the authors show that from 2013 to 2017, the plan has achieved substantial public health benefits.

Abstract: Outdoor air pollution adversely affects human health and is estimated to be responsible for five to ten per cent of the total annual premature mortality in the contiguous United States1–3. Combustion emissions from a variety of sources, such as power generation or road traffic, make a large contribution to harmful air pollutants such as ozone and fine particulate matter (PM2.5)4. Efforts to mitigate air pollution have focused mainly on the relationship between local emission sources and local air quality2. Air quality can also be affected by distant emission sources, however, including emissions from neighbouring federal states5,6. This cross-state exchange of pollution poses additional regulatory challenges. Here we quantify the exchange of air pollution among the contiguous United States, and assess its impact on premature mortality that is linked to increased human exposure to PM2.5 and ozone from seven emission sectors for 2005 to 2018. On average, we find that 41 to 53 per cent of air-quality-related premature mortality resulting from a state’s emissions occurs outside that state. We also find variations in the cross-state contributions of different emission sectors and chemical species to premature mortality, and changes in these variations over time. Emissions from electric power generation have the greatest cross-state impacts as a fraction of their total impacts, whereas commercial/residential emissions have the smallest. However, reductions in emissions from electric power generation since 2005 have meant that, by 2018, cross-state premature mortality associated with the commercial/residential sector was twice that associated with power generation. In terms of the chemical species emitted, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide emissions caused the most cross-state premature deaths in 2005, but by 2018 primary PM2.5 emissions led to cross-state premature deaths equal to three times those associated with sulfur dioxide emissions. These reported shifts in emission sectors and emission species that contribute to premature mortality may help to guide improvements to air quality in the contiguous United States. This analysis of the exchange of air pollution amongst the contiguous United States finds that, on average, around half of the early deaths caused by a state’s air pollution occurs outside that state, with different contributions by different emission sectors and chemical species.

Abstract: Although air quality in China has substantially improved since 2013 as a consequence of the clean air action, severe haze events still frequently strike megacities despite strict local emissions reduction efforts. Long-range transport and local accumulation as well as chemical transformation have been deemed as key factors of heavy haze pollution; however, the formation mechanisms of regional long-lasting haze and the physical and chemical connections between different megacities clusters are still poorly understood. Here we present that long-range transport and aerosol–boundary layer feedback may interact rather than act as two isolated processes as traditionally thought by investigating typical regional haze events in northern and eastern China. This interaction can then amplify transboundary air pollution transport over a distance of 1,000 km and boost long-lasting secondary haze from the North China Plain to the Yangtze River delta. Earlier emission reduction before the pollution episodes would provide better air pollution mitigation in both regions. Our results show an amplified transboundary transport of haze by aerosol–boundary layer interaction in China and suggest the importance of coordinated cross-regional emission reduction with a focus on radiatively active species like black carbon. Secondary air pollution events are enhanced in the Yangtze River delta, China, due to the interaction of long-range transport and aerosol–boundary layer feedback, according to a combination of observations and simulations of haze events from 2013 to 2018.

Abstract: Nitrate is an increasingly important component of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) during winter in northern China. Past emission control has been ineffective in reducing winter nitrate. Here, we use extensive observations and a model with state-of-the-art nitrogen chemistry to identify the key factors that control the nitrate formation in the heavily polluted North China Plain (NCP). In contrast to the previous view of weak winter photochemistry, we show that the O3 and OH productions are sufficiently high in winter to facilitate fast gas-phase and heterogeneous conversion of NOX to nitrate over the NCP. Increasing O3 and OH productions from higher precursor levels and fast ROX cycling accelerate the nitrate generation during heavy pollution. We find that the 31.8% reduction of NOX emissions from 2010 to 2017 in the NCP lowers surface nitrate by only 0.2% and even increases nitrate in some polluted areas. This is mainly due to the increase of O3 and OH (by ∼30%), which has subsequently increased the conversion efficiency of NOX to HNO3 (by 38.7%). Future control strategies for the winter haze should also aim to lower photochemical oxidants, via larger and synchronized NOX and VOCs emissions reduction, to overcome the effects of nonlinear photochemistry and aerosol chemical feedback.

Abstract: Summarized the heavy metal pollution caused by natural and human activities. The natural causes include the migration and redistribution of soil debris and the hydraulic migration of soil parent rock with high background value under the action of wind; human factors include mining, abandoned mining areas, fertilizer and pesticide application, and sewage irrigation. By examining the sources of heavy metals in soil, the temporal and spatial variation and source variation of heavy metal pollution can be summarized, and then find a reasonable way to intervene as early as possible from the origin to reduce the harm of this pollution to the soil. Finally, future research trends and key problems were indicated, which laid a theoretical foundation for further effective research.

Abstract: Environmental contamination by mercury is and will continue to be a serious risk for human health. Pollution of the terrestrial environment is particularly important as it is a place of human life and food production. This publication presents a review of the literature on issues related to mercury pollution of the terrestrial environment: soil and plants and their transformations. Different forms of atmospheric Hg may be deposited on surfaces by way of wet and dry processes. These forms may be sequestered within terrestrial compartments or emitted back into the atmosphere, and the relative importance of these processes is dependent on the form of Hg, the surface chemistry, and the environmental conditions. On the land surface, Hg deposition mainly occurs in the oxidized form (Hg2+), and its transformations are associated primarily with the oxidation–reduction potential of the environment and the biological and chemical processes of methylation. The deposition of Hg pollutants on the ground with low vegetation is as 3–5 times lower than that in forests. The estimation of Hg emissions from soil and plants, which occur mainly in the Hg0 form, is very difficult. Generally, the largest amounts of Hg are emitted from tropical regions, followed by the temperate zone, and the lowest levels are from the polar regions. Areas with vegetation can be ranked according to the size of the emissions as follows: forests > other areas (tundra, savannas, and chaparral) > agricultural areas > grassland ecosystems; areas of land devoid of vegetation emit more Hg than those with plants. In areas with high pollution, such as areas near Hg mines, the Hg content in soil and plants is much higher than in other areas. Mercury is recognized as a toxic, persistent, and mobile contaminant; it does not degrade in the environment and becomes mobile because of the volatility of the element and several of its compounds. Atmospheric contamination by mercury continues to be one of the most important environmental problems in the modern world. The general conclusions were drawn from a review of the literature and presented in this paper.