Abstract: The time it takes for rainfall to travel through a catchment and reach the stream is a fundamental hydraulic parameter that controls the retention of soluble contaminants and thus the downstream consequences of pollution episodes. Catchments with short flushing times will deliver brief, intense contaminant pulses to downstream waters, whereas catchments with longer flushing times will deliver less intense but more sustained contaminant fluxes. Here we analyse detailed time series of chloride, a natural tracer, in both rainfall and runoff from headwater catchments at Plynlimon, Wales. We show that, although the chloride concentrations in rainfall have a white noise spectrum, the chloride concentrations in streamflow exhibit fractal 1/f scaling over three orders of magnitude. The fractal fluctuations in tracer concentrations indicate that these catchments do not have characteristic flushing times. Instead, their travel times follow an approximate power-law distribution implying that they will retain a long chemical memory of past inputs. Contaminants will initially be flushed rapidly, but then low-level contamination will be delivered to streams for a surprisingly long time.

Abstract: Volatile organic compounds play a central role in the processes that generate both urban photochemical smog and tropospheric ozone. For successful and accurate prediction of these pollution episodes, identification of the dominant reactive species within the volatile organic carbon pool is needed. At present, lack of resolution inherent in single-column chromatographic analysis limits such a detailed chemical characterization of the complex urban atmosphere. Here we present an improved method of peak deconvolution from double-column (orthogonal) gas chromatography. This has enabled us to isolate and classify more than 500 chemical species of volatile organic compounds in urban air, including over 100 multi-substituted monoaromatic and volatile oxygenated hydrocarbons. We suggest that previous assessments of reactive carbon species may therefore have underestimated the contribution made by volatile organic compounds to urban pollution, particularly for compounds with more than six carbon atoms. Incorporating these species in predictive models should greatly improve our understanding of photochemical ozone yields and the formation of harmful secondary organic aerosols.

Abstract: The results of long-term investigations into the concentrations of some heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, and Cd) in the bottom sediments of the Dnieper reservoirs and the Dnieper–Bug estuary are considered. Maximum quantities of the metals studied are characteristic of southern water bodies located within industrial zones (the Zaporozh’e and Kakhovka reservoirs as well as the Dnieper–Bug estuary). The highest concentrations of the metals studied occurred in the clay silts (Fe, 11 600–32 400; Mn, 1504–3450; Cu, 38.9–85.5; Zn, 89.8–186.5; Cr, 48.6–193.0; and Cd, 1.9–4.4 mg kg-1 dry weight). Accumulation of heavy metals in the bottom sediments is an important factor in the self-purification of aquatic environments. However, this process is reversible and therefore provides a constant threat of secondary water pollution. Secondary water pollution is observed in summer and autumn when water consumption increases. The concentrations of heavy metals increase by a factor of 1.5–3 after the drawdown of the water level. The main reason for the rise in the concentrations of metals is exchange between the bottom sediments and the water column. The rate of heavy metal migration is connected with the forms of occurrence in solid substrates and pore solutions in the bottom sediments, as well as with physico-chemical conditions arising at the sediment/water boundary. Therefore, our investigations concentrated on the study of the fractional distribution of heavy metals among solid substrates and their forms of occurrence in interstitial solutions. This distribution depends, most of all, on the chemical properties of metals as well as the chemical and mineralogical composition of the sediments and the chemical properties of pore solutions. Most of the supply of Mn, Zn, Fe, and Cd is associated with oxides and hydroxides of iron and manganese (Mn, 74–93%; Zn, 43–70%; Fe, 27–59%; and Cd, 28–41%). Most copper and chromium is bound to organic matter and to scarcely soluble minerals. In the interstitial solutions studied, metals (except manganese) are found mainly as complex compounds with dissolved organic matter of a different molecular weight. Nevertheless, the fraction of complexes with a relatively low molecular weight (500–5000 Da) prevailed (40–70%). Dissolved manganese in the pore solutions consists chiefly of free (hydrated) ions Mn2+ (80–95%). The results obtained were used for a comparative evaluation of heavy metal mobility and the exchange ability of their associated compounds in the bottom sediment–water system.

Abstract: Soil enzyme activities are considered to be sensitive to pollution and have been proposed as indicators for measuring the degree of soil degradation In this work we found that in three galician soils exposed to various degrees of pollution by tanning effluent, hydrocarbons or landfill effluent, the changes in the activities of individual enzyme did not allow precise quantification of soil degradation Thus, the enzymatic activities in polluted soils with respect to that in control soils was between 37 and 260% for phosphomonoesterase, between 16 and 250% for β-glucosidase, between 28 and 194% for urease and between 24 and 251% for dehydrogenase The degree of degradation was, however, clearly shown in all cases by the ratio Nc/Nk, where Nk is Kjeldahl nitrogen and Nc is a function of microbial biomass C and nitrogen mineralization capacity combined with three enzyme activities (phosphomonoesterase, β-glucosidase and urease) This ratio, Nc/Nk, exhibited all the attributes of a good pollution indicator and, in particular, was able to discriminate between the effect of the pollutant and any prior degradation of the sites It is concluded that quantification of soil degradation can require that information on enzyme activities be supplemented with information on other biochemical soil properties

Abstract: It is increasingly recognized that air pollution is transported on mid-latitude westerly winds from Eurasia to the Pacific Ocean basin and across to North America. This trans-Pacific pollution reaches North America and may have substantial impacts on ecosystems and climate in the entire Pacific region. In their Perspective, Wilkening et al . report from a recent meeting where researchers attempted to synthesize and evaluate existing knowledge about trans-Pacific pollutant transport.

Abstract: A need for rapid and inexpensive (proxy) methods of outlining areas exposed to increased pollution by atmospheric particulates of industrial origin caused scientists in various fields to use and validate different non-traditional (or non-chemical) techniques. Among them, soil magnetometry seems to be a suitable tool, at least in some cases. This method is based on the knowledge that ferrimagnetic particles, namely magnetite, are produced from pyrite during combustion of fossil fuel. Besides the combustion processes, magnetic particles can also originate from road traffic, for example, or can be included in various waste-water outlets. Magnetite, Fe3O4, ranks among the main ferrimagnetic minerals and its identification in various ecosystems can contribute to fast and simple outlining of areas and sites exposed to higher pollution impact. Here the method of magnetic mapping of anthropogenic pollution will be introduced using a review of our recent case studies on different ecosystems in the Czech Republic and Germany.

Abstract: Overview of Environmental Systems * Basic Modeling Concepts in Environmental Systems Models * Strategies for Analyzing and Using Environmental Systems Models * Modeling Predator-Prey Systems * Modeling Surface Water Contamination * Matter Cycling in Ecosystems * Modeling Mobile Source Air Pollution Inventories * Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming * Atmospheric Chemistry and Pollution Transport

Abstract: This paper discusses the history of atmospheric lead pollution, the past geographic distribution of atmospheric lead deposition in Sweden, and the fate of the pollution lead in boreal forest soils. The paper is based on analyses of 206Pb/207Pb isotope ratios and lead concentrations in lake sediments, peat deposits and soil profiles from Sweden. The first signs of atmospheric lead pollution date back to 3500 to 4000 years ago. There was a small, but clear peak during the Greek-Roman period around 0 AD. About 1000 AD a major and unreversed increase occurred; varved lake sediments disclose pollution peaks at about 1200 AD and 1530 AD, which match peaks in metallurgy in Europe. With the Industrial Revolution atmospheric lead pollution increased, however, not as much as usually suggested, and not at all from what can be called background values. Lead pollution increased markedly after World War II, peaked about 1970, and will, if the present trend continues, soon be back to Medieval levels. The distri...

Abstract: A methodology using a nonlinear optimization model is presented for estimating unknown magnitude, location and duration of groundwater pollution sources under transient flow and transport conditions. The proposed optimization model incorporates the governing equations of flow and solute transport as binding equality constraints, and thus essentially simulates the physical processes of transient flow and transient transport in the groundwater systems.The proposed inverse model identifies unknown sources of pollution by using measured values of pollutant concentration at selected locations. Performance of the proposed model for the identification of unknown groundwater pollution sources is evaluated for an illustrative study area in a hypothetical confined aquifer under different cases of data availability. The effect of observation well location vis-a-vis pollution source location on identification accuracy is also investigated. Performance of the developed identification model is also evaluated for a condition when concentration measurements are missing during few initial time periods after the pollution sources become active. The effect of specified initial guesses of the variable values on the optimal solutions are also investigated. These performance evaluation results demonstrate the limitations and potential applicability of the proposed optimization model for identifying the sources of pollution in transient groundwater systems.

Abstract: Petroleum hydrocarbons are widespread environmental pollutants. Although biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons has been the subject of numerous investigations, information on their toxicity to microorganisms in soil is limited, with virtually no work conducted on soil algae. We carried out a screening experiment for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and their toxicity to soil algal populations, microbial biomass, and soil enzymes (dehydrogenase and urease) in a long-term TPH-polluted site with reference to an adjacent unpolluted site. Microbial biomass, soil enzyme activity, and microalgae declined in medium to high-level (5,200–21,430 mg kg−1 soil) TPH-polluted soils, whereas low-level (<2,120 mg kg−1 soil) pollution stimulated the algal populations and showed no effect on microbial biomass and enzymes. However, inhibition of all the tested parameters was more severe in soil considered to have medium-level pollution than in soils that were highly polluted. This result could not be explained by chemical analysis alone. Of particular interest was an observed shift in the species composition of algae in polluted soils with elimination of sensitive species in the medium to high polluted soils. Also, an algal growth inhibition test carried out using aqueous eluates prepared from polluted soils supported these results. Given the sensitivity of algae to synthetic pollutants, alteration in the algal species composition can serve as a useful bioindicator of pollution. The results of this experiment suggest that chemical analysis alone is not adequate for toxicological estimations and should be used in conjunction with bioassays. Furthermore, changes in species composition of algae proved to be more sensitive than microbial biomass and soil enzyme activity measurements.

Abstract: The embanked floodplains of the lower Rhine river in the Netherlands contain large amounts of heavy metals, which is a result of many years of deposition of contaminated overbank sediments. The metal pollution varies greatly between the various floodplain sections as well as in vertical direction within the floodplain soil profiles. The present contribution describes the key processes producing the spatial variability of the metal pollution in floodplain soils: (1) spatial patterns of the concentrations and deposition of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn during a single flood, which have been determined from samples collected after a high-magnitude flood event; (2) the pollution trends of the lower Rhine over the past 150 years, which were reconstructed on the basis of metal concentrations in sediments from small ponds within the floodplain area. During the flood the largest metal depositions (0.03 g/m 2 Cd, 0.7 g/m 2 Cu, 1.1 g/m 2 Pb and 5.0 g/m 2 Zn for the Rhine) occurred along the natural levees, decreasing to about one third of these values at larger distance from the river. Deposition of heavy metals occurred since the end of the nineteenth century. Periods of maximum pollution occurred in the 1930s and 1960s, when Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations were about 6-10 times as high as background values. The resulting metal distribution in the floodplain soil profiles is illustrated by means of typical examples. Maximum metal concentrations in floodplain soils vary from 30 to 130 mg/kg for Cu, from 70 to 490 mg/kg for Pb, and from 170 to 1450 mg/kg for Zn. The lowest metal pollution is found in the distal parts of floodplain sections with low flooding frequencies, where average sedimentation rates have been less than about 5 mm/a. The largest metal accumulations occur in low-lying floodplain sections where average sedimentation rates have been more than 10 mm/a.

Abstract: Contaminated Land Ground Contamination The Land Environment Land Environment Sensitivity and Tolerance Land Suitability and Use Wastes and Waste Streams Nature of Soils Soil Materials in the Land Environment Soil Materials Soil Fractions Soil Structure Physical Properties Soil-Water Systems Surface Relationships Surfaces and Soil Fractions Surface Charges and Electrified Interface Diffuse Double-Layer (DDL) Models Interactions and Soil Structure Soil-Water Characteristics Interactions and Partitioning of Pollutants Pollutants, Contaminants, and Fate Pollutants of Major Concern Controls and Reactions in Porewater Partitioning and Sorption Mechanisms pH Environment, Solubility, and Precipitation Natural Soil Organics and Organic Chemicals Soil Surface Sorption Properties - CEC, SSA Pollutant Sorption Capacity Characterization Interactions and Pollutant Transport Predictions Partitioning and Fate of Heavy Metals Environmental Controls on HM Mobility and Availability Partitioning of HM Pollutants Distribution of Partitioned HMs Soil Composition, Structure, and HM Partitioning Persistence and Fate of Organic Chemical Pollutants Adsorption and Bonding Mechanisms Partitioning of Organic Chemical Pollutants Interactions and Fate Interactions and Pollutant Removal Basic Decontamination Considerations Determination of Pollutant Release Electronics and Electrokinetics Biochemical Reactions and Pollutants Assessment, Screening, and Treatability Remediation and Pollution Mitigation Pollutants and Site Contamination Basic Soil Decontamination Considerations Physio-Chemical Techniques Chemical Techniques Biological Techniques Multiple Treatments and Treatment Trains Index

Abstract: The chemical characteristics of groundwater in and around the industrial area of Naini district, Allahabad have been studied to evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation and domestic uses. Sixty five water samples representing the shallow and deep groundwater of the area were collected and analysed for pH, EC, TDS, HCO 3 , CO 3 , SO 4 , Cl, Ca, Mg, Na and K. It is observed that the quality of the groundwater is suitable for domestic use with some exception. The observed high quantity of heavy metals at some sites requires immediate attention and detailed study. The calculated values of SAR, RSC and sodium percentage indicate the good to permissible quality of water. However, the high sodium percentage and RSC values at certain sites restrict its suitability for agricultural purposes.

Abstract: A novel ion-exchange membrane bioreactor, able to prevent secondary pollution of biologically treated drinking water, was developed and specifically tested for water denitrification. This system co...

Abstract: Past studies have examined how both extreme weather and atmospheric pollutants influence human mortality. However, the differential and/or synergistic impacts of weather and pollution on mortality are poorly understood. This relationship is particularly notable in summer, when both extreme weather and high pollution episodes are frequent. The goal of this study is to describe the relationship between atmospheric conditions (as characterized by weather and air pollution) and mortality in the summer season for Birmingham, Alabama and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. To assess the health impacts of both weather and pollution (ozone and total suspended particulates, or TSP), we used a synoptic, or air mass-based, approach to take into account the entire weather situation, rather than individual weather elements. This method was used to identify ‘offensive’ air masses, which are associated with elevated mortality, and then to investigate which individual or combination of atmospheric conditions poses the greatest threat to human health in terms of acute (daily) mortality. In both cities, offensive weather events have a greater impact on acute mortality than high concentrations of TSP or ozone. The highest mortality levels occur when the hottest, but not the most polluted, air mass is present in each city. In Philadelphia, neither TSP nor ozone appear to contribute an ‘add on’ effect to weather-related mortality. Under non-offensive weather situations, pollution concentrations are associated with increased mortality in Philadelphia. Yet, regardless of pollution concentration, mortality levels are much lower for these air masses than for offensive events. Pollution appears to be more important for mortality in Birmingham. Although Birmingham's high-mortality (offensive) air mass is not the most polluted, offensive air mass days with high pollution concentrations nonetheless exhibit higher mean mortality than offensive air mass days with low pollution concentrations. Also different from Philadelphia is a lack of a relationship in Birmingham between pollution levels and mortality on non-offensive air mass days. The relationship between summer weather and mortality is strong in both cities, while the role of pollution is less clear. This research underscores the imperative need for the development of a weather/health watch-warning system to alert the public that an offensive synoptic situation is imminent. Copyright © 2000 Royal Meteorological Society

Abstract: The ability of particles with a 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameter of 10 microm (PM10) to cause respiratory health effects possibly depends on their composition. This study evaluated whether the soluble elemental concentrations in PM10 were related to acute respiratory health effects. The Pollution Effects on Asthmatic Children in Europe (PEACE) study is a multicentre study of the acute effects of PM10 and other air pollution components on the respiratory health of children with chronic respiratory symptoms in urban and suburban panels. Children, 1208, divided among 17 panels were followed for > or =2 months. Exposure to air pollution was monitored on a daily basis. Health status was monitored by twice daily peak expiratory flow (PEF) measurements and a symptom diary. Median concentrations of iron ranged 105-1,110 ng x m(-3) in the urban and 32-517 ng x m(-3) in the suburban locations. The daily concentrations of most elements were not associated with daily variation in PEF, prevalence of respiratory symptoms or bronchodilator use. Silicon and iron concentrations tended to be negatively associated with PEF, and positively associated with the prevalence of phlegm. In two pollutant models, PM10 effect-estimates on phlegm prevalence were reduced and lost significance, whereas the effect-estimates of iron or silicon remained essentially unchanged. The effects of silicon and iron could not be separated. In conclusion, this study provides only weak support for the hypothesis that daily fluctuations in soluble elemental concentrations in ambient particulate matter are responsible for acute health effects.

Abstract: Despite dramatic improvements in the quality of many point source effluent discharges over the past 40 years, pollution of surface and coastal waters, as well as groundwater resources, is still a major problem. These persistent problem sources essentially comprise non-point source contamination. This book quantifies the environmental and ecological impacts of such urban and rural diffuse pollution in the UK and assesses their economic implications. The volume deals with individual diffuse pollutants, their modes of transport from air and land to receiving waters and their impacts. The synthesis provides detail of pollutants by source, identifies impacts on receiving waters and water users and highlights the likely cost implications of such impacts for the UK situation.