Abstract: 1 Introduction.- References.- 2 Lead in the atmosphere.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Sources of lead in air.- 2.1.1 Industrial emissions.- 2.2.2 Fossil fuel combustion.- 2.2.3 Vehicular emissions.- 2.3 Concentrations of lead in ambient air.- 2.3.1 Airborne lead arising from industrial emissions.- 2.3.2 Airborne lead arising from vehicular emissions.- 2.3.2.1 Inorganic lead in air.- 2.3.2.2 Organic lead in air.- 2.3.2.3 Vertical profiles of lead above a street.- 2.3.2.4 Correlation of lead levels with other pollutants.- 2.4 Particle size distributions.- 2.5 Chemical properties of atmospheric lead.- 2.5.1 Smelter emissions.- 2.5.2 Vehicular inorganic lead.- 2.5.3 Organic lead.- References.- 3 Lead in water.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Sources of lead in surface waters.- 3.2.1 Point sources.- 3.2.1.1 Industrial effluents.- 3.2.1.2 Sewage effluent.- 3.2.2 Diffuse sources.- 3.2.2.1 Urban areas.- 3.2.2.2 Rural areas.- 3.3 Concentrations of lead in water.- 3.3.1 Source waters.- 3.3.2 Receiving waters.- 3.3.3 Ground water.- 3.3.4 Sediments.- 3.3.5 Lead in drinking water.- 3.4 Chemistry of lead in water.- 3.4.1 Solubility control.- 3.4.2 Suspended sediments.- 3.4.3 Organic matter.- 3.4.4 Colloidal hydrous ferric and manganese oxides.- 3.4.5 Mixing with seawater.- 3.4.6 Schemes for the determination of physico-chemical speciation.- References.- 4 Lead in soils.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Sources of lead in soil.- 4.2.1 Parent materials.- 4.2.2 Dry deposition of airborne lead.- 4.2.3 Wet deposition of airborne lead.- 4.2.4 Disposal of sewage sludge to land.- 4.2.5 Other sources of lead contamination of soils.- 4.3 Concentrations of lead in soil.- 4.4 Uptake of soil lead by living organisms.- 4.5 Chemistry of lead in soils.- 4.6 Lead in street dusts.- References.- 5 Control of lead in air.- 5.1 Industrial sources of lead.- 5.1.1 Mining, smelting and refining of non-ferrous metals.- 5.1.1.1 Primary smelting of lead.- 5.1.1.2 Primary smelting of other metals.- 5.1.1.3 Secondary smelting of lead.- 5.1.1.4 Refining of lead.- 5.1.1.5 Production of ferrous metals and alloys.- 5.1.2 Industrial processes using lead.- 5.1.2.1 Production of lead oxides and pigments.- 5.1.2.2 Storage battery manufacture.- 5.1.2.3 Lead alkyl manufacture.- 5.2 Control of industrial emissions of lead.- 5.2.1 Control of industrial emissions of particulate lead to atmosphere.- 5.2.1.1 Fabric filters.- 5.2.1.2 Electrostatic precipitators.- 5.2.1.3 Inertial collectors.- 5.2.1.4 Wet scrubbers.- 5.2.1.5 Control systems used in the lead industry.- 5.2.2 Control of industrial emissions of organic lead to the atmosphere.- 5.2.3 Chimney heights and dispersion of pollution from a point source.- 5.3 Legislative regulations affecting industrial lead emissions.- 5.3.1 United Kingdom.- 5.3.2 United States.- 5.4 Control of lead emissions from motor vehicles.- 5.4.1 Reduction of the lead content of gasoline.- 5.4.2 Removal of particulate lead from vehicle exhaust gases.- 5.4.3 Lead pollution from waste oil disposal.- 5.5 Ambient air quality standard for lead.- 5.6 Control of lead within the workplace.- 5.6.1 Industrial hygiene standards for lead.- 5.6.2 Monitoring for industrial hygiene.- 5.6.3 Control of lead exposure of workers.- References.- 6 Control of lead discharges to water.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Water quality criteria and standards.- 6.2.1 Lead in drinking water.- 6.2.2 Lead in freshwaters.- 6.2.3 Sewage works final effluent.- 6.2.4 Industrial effluent.- 6.3 Uniform emission standards versus water quality objectives.- 6.3.1 Water quality objectives.- 6.3.2 Uniform emission standards.- 6.4 Control practices for lead discharges.- 6.4.1 Industrial effluent treatment.- 6.4.1.1 Precipitation.- 6.4.1.2 Activated carbon adsorption.- 6.4.1.3 Ion exchange.- 6.4.1.4 Other removal methods.- 6.4.1.5 Practical experience of lead removal.- 6.4.2 Sewage treatment.- 6.4.3 Stormwater control.- 6.4.3.1 Best management practices.- 6.4.3.2 Structural controls.- 6.4.4 Control of lead in drinking water.- References.- 7 Human exposure to lead and its effects.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Sources and intake of lead.- 7.2.1 Food.- 7.2.2 Drink.- 7.2.3 Typical daily lead intake from food and drink.- 7.2.4 Lead in air.- 7.2.5 Miscellaneous sources.- 7.3 Uptake of lead.- 7.3.1 Ingestion.- 7.3.2 Inhalation.- 7.3.2.1 Particulate lead.- 7.3.2.2 Tetraalkyllead vapour.- 7.4 Metabolism of lead.- 7.4.1 Inorganic lead.- 7.4.2 Tetraalkyllead.- 7.5 Blood leads.- 7.5.1 Population values.- 7.5.2 Relationship to source of intake.- 7.6 Biological and adverse health effects of exposure to lead.- 7.6.1 Bloodstream.- 7.6.2 Neurobehavioural effects.- 7.6.2.1 The Needleman study.- 7.6.2.2 Conclusions.- References.- 8 Chemical analysis of lead in the environment.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Chemical analysis of lead: available techniques.- 8.2.1 X-ray fluorescence (XRF).- 8.2.2 Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV).- 8.2.3 Colorimetric analysis.- 8.2.4 Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).- 8.3 Sampling and analysis of environmental media.- 8.3.1 Lead in air.- 8.3.2 Lead in water.- 8.3.3 Lead in soils and sediments.- 8.3.4 Biological materials.- 8.4 Contamination during lead analysis.- References.

Abstract: The volcano's current cycle of activity is part of a pattern extending over 4500 years. Indeed, its violent eruptions of last year were predicted by volcanologists on the scene.

Abstract: While the impacts of human behavior on air pollution are considerable, very little research has examined this relationship. Similarly, little work has ensued on the effects of air pollution on human behavior. The purpose of this paper is to review the existing literature on air pollution and behavior and present an organizational structure that demonstrates gaps in the literature and lays an initial, conceptual framework for future research. The paper discusses research on the health effects, cognitive, affective, and conative components of air pollution and human response. In addition, the important roles of mediational constructs such as controllability of pollutant and adaptation are discussed in detail.

Abstract: Sediment analysis is used for detecting pollution sources; in addition, sediments are increasingly investigated as a pollution proper and as a carrier and possible source of contaminants in aquatic systems. Amongst the various groups of pollutants which possess a strong affinity to sedimentary materials, heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present the greatest environmental hazard. A review is given of pre-civilisational concentrations (“background” values) of both heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fluviatile sediments, and their development during the past 100 years. The impact of sediment associated heavy metal pollution on both biota and water is discussed.

Abstract: Heavy metals, as environmental contaminants of terrestrial ecosystems, are not a recent phenomenon. They are ubiquitous in trace concentrations in soils and vegetation, and if fact many are required by plants and animals as micronutrients. In addition, naturally occurring surface mineralizations can produce metal concentrations in soils and vegetation that are as high, or higher, than those found around man-made sources. The searches by prospectors for such metal deposits, frequently using biogeochemical techniques, are a part of our history. These cases of natural ‘pollution’ are, however, relatively localized, and it was not until the recent era of industrialization that widespread contaminations by heavy metals (and other classes of pollutants as well) have occurred.

Abstract: Progress is described for a program designed to obtain data necessary for assessing the potential contribution of natural organics to the formation of photochemical air pollution in the California South Coast Air Basin (CSCAB) Needed data include knowledge of emission rates, ambient concentrations and oxidant- and aerosol-forming potential of biogenic hydrocarbons as well as estimates of vegetative biomass in the CSCAB The following tasks have been carried out: Oxidant-precursor relationships were determined for near-ambient concentrations of a-pinene based on data obtained with a 40,000-liter dual-mode outdoor irradiation chamber Initial measurements were made of the ambient concentrations of natural hydrocarbons emitted by relevant vegetative communities in areas free of anthropogenic emissions Plant enclosure chambers and analytical methods were developed for measuring the emission factors of isoprene and monoterpenes from natural, ornamental and agricultural vegetation in the 'source region' of the CSCAB Studies were made of the feasibility of applying remote imagery techniques (including LANDSAT, U-2 and low altitude photography) to the task of quantifying the extent and mass of vegetation in the 'source region' of the CSCAB

Abstract: Fly ash generated by coal-fired power plants is in part collected by filters in the emission stacks while a small portion is vented into the atmosphere. Since many of the coalfired power plants in the western United States are located in the desnrt, the ability to monitor fly ash emissions requires a chemical tracer that utilizes desert soil and plant interactions with the fly ash deposited in the desert environment. This investigation presents the results of a controlled greenhouse experiment in which a native desert plant, the brittlebush (Encelia farinosa), was grown on admixtures of desert soils and fly ash. The fly ash is strongly enriched in Sr and the brittlebush is a Sr accumulator. The data demonstrate that (1) the brittlebush isotopically equilibrates with desert soils whose fly ash components are as low as 0.25% by weight, (2) the fly ash Sr is apparently more available to the plant, than Sr derived from the soils, and (3) the difference between the87Sr/86Sr ratio of the fly ash (0.70807) and soils (0.71097 to 0.71117) warrants further investigations in the natural environment to determine the practicality of this method as a natural tracer of fly ash in the environment.

Abstract: Twenty-six incidents of salmonellosis occurring in Scotland between 1973 and 1979 and attributed to environmental pollution are reviewed. The apparent sources of pollution were sewage effluent (10 incidents), septic tank effluent (eight), sewage sludge (three), seagulls (three) and abattoir effluents (two). Cattle were the species predominantly affected. Human infection was primary in three incidents and was secondary to bovine infection in another four. Thirteen salmonella serotypes were recovered from infected humans or animals and 17 during related environmental investigations. The factors causing pollutions and possible control measures are discussed.

Abstract: The unsteady, two-dimensional model, FETRA, was developed to simulate both sediment and contaminant transport in rivers and esturies. The model consists of three submodels which, when used jointly accurately depict the interaction and migration of sediment, dissolved contaminants, and particulate contaminants. FETRA solves the migration (transport, deposition and resuspension) of cohesive and noncohesive sediments and particulate contaminants of three sediment-size fractions. FETRA was applied to the James River estuary to simulate the migration of river sediments and the pesticide, Kepone. Computed results produced by the model are very similar to field-measured data, meaning that FETRA is reasonably accurate.

Abstract: A stripping method was used to determine the volatile compounds present in the raw water of a reservoir during a heavy bloom of Synura uvella. Besides numerous pollution products, a large number of previously unidentified algal excretion products were determined, including alkenes, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and nor-carotenoids. The approximate amounts of some important algal excretion products present in the raw water are stated. Their biosynthetic origin and possible function in the ecosystem are discussed. The offensive cod liver oil-like odor which Synura imparts to the raw water was traceable to trans,cis-deca-2,4-dienal and minor amounts of trans,cis-hepta-2,4-dienal.

Abstract: Application of a national water network model permits an analysis of the likely affects of agricultural sediment control policies on the quality of the nation's waters. This analysis is believed superior to previous assessments based mainly on erosion estimates without accounting for the characteristics of the receiving water or the contribution of pollutants from nonagricultural activities. Specifically, while the earlier assessments concluded that agriculture-related pollution problems are widespread and ubiquitous, this analysis concludes that it is probably more efficient to focus sediment-related pollution control policies on about one third of the nation's agricultural regions.

Abstract: Bioindication of air pollution effects has received considerable attention in recent years. It has been almost entirely focused on individual species and relatively little notice has been given to ecosystem level process and function monitors. Longterm research projects in the Niepolomice Forest in southern Poland and the Colstrip area in southeast Montana, U.S.A., were analyzed for both organismic and system level indicators and monitors for SO, trace elements, and fluoride pollution originating in nearby coal-fired industrial processes. Species of lichens exhibited changes in morphology and survival and pine species exhibited pollutant accumulation in needles at both sites. Declines in Scotch pine growth in Poland of up to 20% were compared with declines in western wheatgrass rhizone biomass in Montana to illustrate system wide effects on primary productivity. Directly observable declines in decomposition rate were noted for both sites at higher pollution levels and tied to system wide occurrences of nutrient deficiency and toxicant buildup in soil pools. Pollutant increases in deer antler composition, changes in grasshopper dietary patterns, and lichen density and health were postulated to have system level implications as well.

Abstract: A Visual Perception Test, consisting of photographic slides of water sites, was designed to examine laymen's water quality perceptions. The slides were taken at five water sites where the level of visual pollution was artifically altered by the investigator. Analysis of variance indicated that the water sites were evaluated differently for each of five pollution levels. Increases in water discoloration and the quality of litter were viewed as increases in level of pollution. Laymen not only evaluated visually polluted sites lower for uses such as picnicking, but they also evaluated the quality of the actual water lower. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that a combination of water color, scenic beauty appreciation, quality of the surrounding environment and industry as a pollution source explained 73 percent of the variance in predicting Overall Pollution. Application of factor analysis simplified the variables to an Overall Pollution Factor and a Boating Use Factor.

Abstract: All occupied buildings have various sources of indoor air pollution. Humans (and their household pets) generate carbon dioxide, moisture, odors, and microbes simply through normal living processes. Other more important sources of indoor air pollution are combustion appliances (gas stoves, unvented space heaters), building materials (used in construction, furnishings, and insulation), and soil under and around houses. These sources release carbn monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO/sub 2/), formaldehyde (HCHO) and other organics, particulates, and radon. This paper discusses the sources and concentrations of organic compounds in indoor environments.

Abstract: Concentrations of respirable particles were measured in private homes in several Massachusetts cities to determine whether levels in different rooms were comparable. The use of indoor and outdoor air filters is described. Two homes showed significant differences between rooms, while the other two homes monitored did not. Indoor concentrations varied greatly, indicating the importance of indoor particulate sources and characteristics of individual structures in determining indoor levels.