Abstract: The electro-oxidation of water to oxygen is expected to play a major role in the development of future electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies. However, the slow rate of the oxygen evolution reaction remains a key challenge that requires fundamental understanding to facilitate the design of more active and stable electrocatalysts. Here, we probe the local geometric ligand environment and electronic metal states of oxygen-coordinated iridium centres in nickel-leached IrNi@IrOx metal oxide core–shell nanoparticles under catalytic oxygen evolution conditions using operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy, resonant high-energy X-ray diffraction and differential atomic pair correlation analysis. Nickel leaching during catalyst activation generates lattice vacancies, which in turn produce uniquely shortened Ir–O metal ligand bonds and an unusually large number of d-band holes in the iridium oxide shell. Density functional theory calculations show that this increase in the formal iridium oxidation state drives the formation of holes on the oxygen ligands in direct proximity to lattice vacancies. We argue that their electrophilic character renders these oxygen ligands susceptible to nucleophilic acid–base-type O–O bond formation at reduced kinetic barriers, resulting in strongly enhanced reactivities. The precise understanding of the active phase under reaction conditions at the molecular level is crucial for the design of improved catalysts. Now, Strasser, Jones and colleagues correlate the high activity of IrNi@IrOx core–shell nanoparticles with the amount of lattice vacancies produced by the nickel leaching process that takes place before and during water oxidation, and elucidate the underlying structural-electronic effects.

Abstract: The electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR) produces diverse chemical species. Cu clusters with a judiciously controlled surface coordination number (CN) provide active sites that simultaneously optimize selectivity, activity, and efficiency for CO2RR. Here we report a strategy involving metal–organic framework (MOF)-regulated Cu cluster formation that shifts CO2 electroreduction toward multiple-carbon product generation. Specifically, we promoted undercoordinated sites during the formation of Cu clusters by controlling the structure of the Cu dimer, the precursor for Cu clusters. We distorted the symmetric paddle-wheel Cu dimer secondary building block of HKUST-1 to an asymmetric motif by separating adjacent benzene tricarboxylate moieties using thermal treatment. By varying materials processing conditions, we modulated the asymmetric local atomic structure, oxidation state and bonding strain of Cu dimers. Using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and in situ X-ray absorption spectros...

Abstract: Carbon nitrides integrating macroheterocycles offer unique potential as hosts for stabilizing metal atoms due to their rich electronic structure. To date, only graphitic heptazine-based polymers have been studied. Here, we demonstrate that palladium atoms can be effectively isolated on other carbon nitride scaffolds including linear melem oligomers and poly(triazine/heptazine imides). Increased metal uptake was linked to the larger cavity size and the presence of chloride ions in the polyimide structures. Changing the host structure leads to significant variation in the average oxidation state of the metal, which can be tuned by exchange of the ionic species as evidenced by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and supported by density functional theory. Evaluation in the semi-hydrogenation of 2-methyl-3-butyn-2-ol reveals an inverse correlation between the activity and the degree of oxidation of palladium, with oligomers exhibiting the highest activity. These findings provide new mechanistic insights into the influence of the carbon nitride structure on metal stabilization.

Abstract: The electrocatalytic oxidation of water is a challenging step towards the production of hydrogen as an alternative fuel. In nature, water oxidation is catalysed by a high oxidation state Mn4CaO x cluster. The corresponding industrial development of manganese catalysts for water oxidation is very attractive due to the low cost of this metal. A few manganese complexes have been previously explored as water oxidation catalysts using various chemical oxidants in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Efficient electrochemical water oxidation catalysed by a soluble manganese-oxo cluster, however, has not been achieved. Here, we report the synthesis and characterization of [Mn12O12(O2CC6H3(OH)2)16(H2O)4] (Mn12DH), a unique example within this class of compounds in being both highly soluble and stable in water. We demonstrate that Mn12DH, which is readily prepared from cheap and environmentally benign starting materials, is a stable homogeneous water oxidation electrocatalyst operating at pH 6 with an exceptionally low overpotential of only 334 mV. During photosynthesis, nature uses an enzyme with a manganese–calcium core for water oxidation. Here, the authors report the synthesis of a stable, water-soluble manganese cluster that acts as a homogeneous water oxidation electrocatalyst, displaying low overpotential and high Faradaic efficiency.

Abstract: In this report, we demonstrate that continuous improvement in XPS instruments and the calibration standards as well as analysis with standard component-fitting procedures can be used to determine the binding energies of compounds containing phosphorus and sulfur of different oxidation states with higher confidence Based on such improved XPS analyses, the binding energies (BEs) of S2p signals for sulfur of increasing oxidation state are determined to be 166-1675 eV for S=O in dimethyl sulfoxide, 1681 eV for S=O2 in polysulfone, 1684 eV for SO3 in polystyrene sulfonate and 1688 eV for SO4 in chondroitin sulfate The BEs of P2p signals show the following values: 1329 eV for PO3 in triisopropyl phosphite, 1333 eV for PO4 in glycerol phosphate, 1335 eV for PO4 in sodium tripolyphosphate and 1340 eV for PO4 in sodium hexametaphosphate These results showed that there are only small increases in the binding energy when additional oxygen atoms are added to the S-O chemical group A similar result is obtained when the fourth oxygen or poly-phosphate environment is added to the phosphorus compound These BE values are useful to researchers involved in identifying oxidation states of phosphorus and sulfur atoms commonly observed on modified surfaces and interfaces found in applications such as biomaterials, super-capacitors and catalysis

Abstract: A key issue with Na-ion batteries is the development of active materials with stable electrochemical reversibility through the understanding of their sodium storage mechanisms. We report a sodium storage mechanism and properties of a new anode material, digenite Cu1.8S, based on its crystallographic study. It is revealed that copper sulfides (CuxS) can have metal-rich formulas (x ≥ 1.6), due to the unique oxidation state of +1 found in group 11 elements. These phases enable the unit cell to consist of all strong Cu–S bonds and no direct S–S bonds, which are vulnerable to external stress/strain that could result in bond cleavage as well as decomposition. Because of its structural rigidness, the Cu1.8S shows an intercalation/deintercalation reaction mechanism even in a low potential window of 0.1–2.2 V versus Na/Na+ without irreversible phase transformation, which most of the metal sulfides experience through a conversion reaction mechanism. It uptakes, on average, 1.4 Na+ ions per unit cell (∼250 mAh g–1) ...

Abstract: We report novel structure-activity relationships and explore the chemical state and structure of catalytically active sites under operando conditions during the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) catalyzed by a series of porous iron-nitrogen-carbon (FeNC) catalysts. The FeNC catalysts were synthesized from different nitrogen precursors and, as a result of this, exhibited quite distinct physical properties, such as BET surface areas and distinct chemical N-functionalities in varying ratios. The chemical diversity of the FeNC catalysts was harnessed to set up correlations between the catalytic CO2RR activity and their chemical nitrogen-functionalities, which provided a deeper understanding between catalyst chemistry and function. XPS measurements revealed a dominant role of porphyrin-like Fe-N x motifs and pyridinic nitrogen species in catalyzing the overall reaction process. Operando EXAFS measurements revealed an unexpected change in the Fe oxidation state and associated coordination from Fe2+ to Fe1+. This redox change coincides with the onset of catalytic CH4 production around -0.9 VRHE. The ability of the solid state coordinative Fe1+-N x moiety to form hydrocarbons from CO2 is remarkable, as it represents the solid-state analogue to molecular Fe1+ coordination compounds with the same catalytic capability under homogeneous catalytic environments. This finding highlights a conceptual bridge between heterogeneous and homogenous catalysis and contributes significantly to our fundamental understanding of the FeNC catalyst function in the CO2RR.

Abstract: The dramatic change in electrochemical behavior of nickel (oxy)hydroxide films upon incorporation of Fe ions provides an opportunity to establish effective electrocatalyst design principles. We characterize a photochemically deposited series of Fe–Ni (oxy)hydroxides by X-ray absorption spectroscopy and track the voltage- and composition-dependence of structural motifs. We observe a trigonal distortion in di-μ-hydroxo bridged NiII–NiII motifs that is preserved following a symmetric contraction of Ni–O bond lengths when oxidized to di-μ-oxo NiIV–NiIV. Incorporation of Fe ions into the structure generates di-μ-hydroxo NiII–FeIII motifs in which Ni–Fe distances are dependent on nickel oxidation state, but Fe–O bond lengths are not. This asymmetry minimizes the trigonal distortion in di-μ-hydroxo NiII–FeIII motifs and neighboring di-μ-hydroxo NiII–NiII sites in the reduced state, but exacerbates it in the oxidized state. We attribute both the Fe-induced anodic shift in nickel-based redox peaks and the improved ability to catalyze the oxygen evolution reaction to this inversion in geometric distortions. Spectroelectrochemical experiments reveal a previously unreported change in optical absorbance at ca. 1.5 V vs. RHE in Fe-containing samples. We attribute this feature to oxidation of nickel ions in di-μ-hydroxo NiII–FeIII motifs, which we propose is the process relevant to catalytic oxygen evolution.

Abstract: Fluorine substitution for oxygen in cation-disordered lithium-excess transition metal oxides (Li1+xTM1–xO2) used as lithium-ion cathodes was recently demonstrated to improve the reversibility of the processes taking place on charge and discharge by reducing the amount of oxygen loss on charge and preventing major structural rearrangements at high voltage. Yet, little is understood about how fluorine incorporates the oxide structure and impacts its electrochemical properties. Here, we use a combination of experimental (solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy) and theoretical techniques (density functional theory (DFT) calculations and Monte Carlo simulations) to investigate the evolution of the local structure around fluorine and lithium and the oxidation state of redox-active nickel during charge and discharge of the Li1.15Ni0.45Ti0.3Mo0.1O1.85F0.15 (LNF15) cathode. We show that fluorine doping introduces short-range order in as-synthesized LNF15 by incorporating in lithium-rich sites wi...

Abstract: An important goal in chemistry is to prepare compounds with unusual oxidation states showing exciting properties For gold (Au), the relativistic expansion of its 5d orbitals makes it form high oxidation state compounds Thus far, the highest oxidation state of Au known is +5 Here, we propose high pressure as a controllable method for preparing +4 and +6 oxidation states in Au via its reaction with fluorine First-principles swarm-intelligence structure search identifies two hitherto unknown stoichiometric compounds, AuF4 and AuF6, exhibiting typical molecular crystal character The high-pressure phase diagram of Au fluorides is rather different from Cu or Ag fluorides, which is indicated by stable chemical compositions and the pressures needed for the synthesis of these compounds This difference can be associated with the stronger relativistic effects in Au relative to Cu or Ag Our work represents a significant step forward in a more complete understanding of the oxidation states of Au

Abstract: The reaction of [(PyNMe3)FeII(CF3SO3)2], 1, with excess peracetic acid at −40 °C generates a highly reactive intermediate, 2b(PAA), that has the fastest rate to date for oxidizing cyclohexane by a nonheme iron species. It exhibits an intense 490 nm chromophore associated with an S = 1/2 EPR signal having g-values at 2.07, 2.01, and 1.94. This species was shown to be in a fast equilibrium with a second S = 1/2 species, 2a(PAA), assigned to a low-spin acylperoxoiron(III) center. Unfortunately, contaminants accompanying the 2(PAA) samples prevented determination of the iron oxidation state by Mossbauer spectroscopy. Use of MeO-PyNMe3 (an electron-enriched version of PyNMe3) and cyclohexyl peroxycarboxylic acid as oxidant affords intermediate 3b(CPCA) with a Mossbauer isomer shift δ = −0.08 mm/s that indicates an iron(V) oxidation state. Analysis of the Mossbauer and EPR spectra, combined with DFT studies, demonstrates that the electronic ground state of 3b(CPCA) is best described as a quantum mechanical mixt...

Abstract: In solids, heterogeneous catalysis is inherently bound to reactions on the surface. Yet, atomically efficient preparation of specific surfaces and the characterization of their properties are impeding its applications towards a clean energy future. Here, we present the synthesis of single layered IrOOH nanosheets and investigations of their structure as well as their electrochemical properties towards oxygen evolution under aqueous acidic conditions. The nanosheets are synthesized by treating bulk IrOOH with a tetrabutylammonium hydroxide solution and subsequent washing. Electron diffraction shows that the triangular arrangement of the edge sharing Ir(O,OH)6 octahedra found in the layers of bulk IrOOH is retained after exfoliation into single layers. When incorporated as an active component in Ti electrodes, the nanosheets exhibit a Tafel slope of 58(3) mV dec−1 and an overpotential of η10 mA cm−2 = 344(7) mV in 0.1 M HClO4, while retaining the trivalent oxidation state of iridium. They outperform bulk rutile-IrO2 and bulk IrOOH as electrocatalytic water oxidation catalysts under the same conditions. The results of this study on the structure–property relationships of low valence IrOOH nanosheets offer new pathways for the development of atom efficient, robust and highly active oxygen evolution catalysts.

Abstract: Transition metals in inorganic systems and metalloproteins can occur in different oxidation states, which makes them ideal redox-active catalysts To gain a mechanistic understanding of the catalytic reactions, knowledge of the oxidation state of the active metals, ideally in operando, is therefore critical L-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is a powerful technique that is frequently used to infer the oxidation state via a distinct blue shift of L-edge absorption energies with increasing oxidation state A unified description accounting for quantum-chemical notions whereupon oxidation does not occur locally on the metal but on the whole molecule and the basic understanding that L-edge XAS probes the electronic structure locally at the metal has been missing to date Here we quantify how charge and spin densities change at the metal and throughout the molecule for both redox and core-excitation processes We explain the origin of the L-edge XAS shift between the high-spin complexes MnII(acac)2 and MnIII(acac)3 as representative model systems and use ab initio theory to uncouple effects of oxidation-state changes from geometric effects The shift reflects an increased electron affinity of MnIII in the core-excited states compared to the ground state due to a contraction of the Mn 3d shell upon core-excitation with accompanied changes in the classical Coulomb interactions This new picture quantifies how the metal-centered core hole probes changes in formal oxidation state and encloses and substantiates earlier explanations The approach is broadly applicable to mechanistic studies of redox-catalytic reactions in molecular systems where charge and spin localization/delocalization determine reaction pathways

Abstract: Pyrite is the most common sulfide in nature, and it is well-known for its roles in acid mine drainage, flotation separation of useful metal (Cu, Pb, Zn, and Mo) sulfide minerals, optoelectronic and photovoltaic application, pneumoconiosis, and even in the origin of life. However, the detailed oxidation behaviors of pyrite are still unclear and not well-understood. New oxidation pathways by O2 on the pyrite (100) surface have been found in this work for the first time using density functional theory simulation; that is, besides Fe sites, S sites are also possible oxidation sites in the initial oxidation state of pyrite, where easier and stronger oxidation may occur. This is the first time to confirm the other researchers' conjecture on the direct oxidation of S sites, which explains the isotopic composition experiments that a minor amount of O2 is permanently incorporated into SO42- during pyrite oxidation (O in SO42- is mainly derived from water). We constructed various H2O-O2 coadsorption models on the pyrite surface by considering the adsorption sequence of H2O and O2. It is found that the H2O molecule undergoes step-wise dissociation in the presence of the O2 molecule. Hydroxyl radical •OH is the reactive oxygen species during H2O dissociation. Cyclic voltammetric measurements confirm the presence of •OH. In addition, H2O2 may also be formed on the surface in terms of H2O-then-O2 sequence adsorption.

Abstract: A series of cobalt porphyrins with π-extending or highly electron-withdrawing β-pyrrole substituents were investigated as to their electrochemistry, spectroscopic properties, and reactivity after electroreduction or electroxidation in nonaqueous media. Each porphyrin, represented as PorCo (where Por = TPP(NO2)Y2 or TPP(NO2)Y6 and Y = phenyl, phenylethynyl, Br, or CN) was shown to undergo multiple redox reactions involving the conjugated π-ring system or central metal ion which could exist in a Co(III), Co(II), or Co(I) oxidation state under the application of an applied oxidizing or reducing potential. Thermodynamic half-wave potentials for the stepwise conversion between each oxidation state of [PorCo]n (where n ranged from +3 to -3) were measured by cyclic voltammetry and analyzed as a function of the compound structure and properties of the electrochemical solvent. UV-visible spectra were obtained for each oxidized or reduced porphyrin in up to six different oxidation states ranging from [PorCo]3- to [PorCo]3+ and analyzed as a function of the compound structure and utilized electrochemical solvent. Chemically or electrochemically generated Co(I) porphyrins are known to be highly reactive in solutions containing alkyl or aryl halides, and this property was utilized to in situ generate a new series of methyl carbon-bonded cobalt(III) porphyrins with the same π-extending or highly electron-withdrawing substituents as the initial Co(II) derivatives. The electrosynthesized carbon-bonded Co(III) porphyrins were then characterized as to their own electrochemical and spectroscopic properties after the addition of one, two, or three electrons in nonaqueous media.

Abstract: Despite the fact that non-aqueous uranium chemistry is over 60 years old, most polarised-covalent uranium-element multiple bonds involve formal uranium oxidation states IV, V, and VI. The paucity of uranium(III) congeners is because, in common with metal-ligand multiple bonding generally, such linkages involve strongly donating, charge-loaded ligands that bind best to electron-poor metals and inherently promote disproportionation of uranium(III). Here, we report the synthesis of hexauranium-methanediide nanometre-scale rings. Combined experimental and computational studies suggest overall the presence of formal uranium(III) and (IV) ions, though electron delocalisation in this Kramers system cannot be definitively ruled out, and the resulting polarised-covalent U = C bonds are supported by iodide and δ-bonded arene bridges. The arenes provide reservoirs that accommodate charge, thus avoiding inter-electronic repulsion that would destabilise these low oxidation state metal-ligand multiple bonds. Using arenes as electronic buffers could constitute a general synthetic strategy by which to stabilise otherwise inherently unstable metal-ligand linkages. Owing to the propensity for uranium(III) compounds to undergo disproportionation, uranium-element multiple bonds involving uranium(III) oxidation states remain rare. Here the authors report hexauranium-methanediide rings that formally contain uranium(III)- and uranium(IV)-methanediides supported by alternating halide and arene bridges.

Abstract: The selective catalytic reduction of NOx by methane (CH4-SCR) was studied on Co-ZSM-5 catalysts. Different Co-ZSM-5 and Co,Na-ZSM-5 catalysts were prepared by ion exchange, characterized by different methods, and were tested in CH4-SCR. The catalytic performance depends on the Co content where catalysts with Co loadings between 2.5–3.0 wt.% showed the best. For mechanistic studies operando DRIFTS/UV–vis spectroscopy was employed enabling the simultaneous observation of surface adsorbates (DRIFTS), changes of Co oxidation state and coordination sphere (UV–vis), and product formation (MS). These measurements reveal that preadsorbed nitrato/nitrito (NOy) species formed by oxidation of NO at Co3+ species present in oxide-like clusters are reduced by gaseous CH4 corresponding to an Eley-Rideal mechanism. Isocyanate species were identified as possible intermediates which react with the NOy species or NO2 to form N2. This could also be confirmed by TG-DSC-MS investigation of Co-ZSM-5 impregnated with Na15NO3 and NaOCN, where 15N14N was already formed at 288 °C in an exothermic reaction of 15NO3− with OCN− catalyzed by Co because on a Co-free sample the 15N14N formation proceeds at significant higher temperature. The isolated Co2+ cations located at exchange positions play an indirect role, facilitating chemisorption of NO and, thus, practically act as storage sites for NO.

Abstract: The oxidation state of the active metal is an important factor for catalyst stability under dry and steam reforming conditions. This works explores the correlation of the oxidation state of the active metal with the coking behavior of alumina supported cobalt and nickel catalysts from a thermodynamic point of view. To this end, the thermodynamics of the oxidation of Co/γ-Al2O3 and Ni/γ-Al2O3 are investigated using calculations at both standard and technical reforming conditions. It is shown that oxidation of nickel by water or CO2 cannot occur spontaneously under reforming conditions regardless of participation of the alumina support material due to positive Gibbs reaction energies. Cobalt, in contrast, is more easily oxidized and may form CoAl2O4 through interaction with the support. This phase may react with surface carbon to regenerate the catalyst after carbon formation due to thermal cracking of methane. A Mars-van-Krevelen type reaction scheme is proposed to explain the higher coking resistance of cobalt compared to nickel.

Abstract: The concept of oxidation state (OS) is based on the concept of Lewis electron pairs, in which the bonding electrons are assigned to the more electronegative element. This approach is useful for keeping track of the electrons, predicting chemical trends, and guiding syntheses. Experimental and quantum-chemical results reveal a limit near +8 for the highest OS in stable neutral chemical substances under ambient conditions. OS=+9 was observed for the isolated [IrO4 ]+ cation in vacuum. The prediction of OS=+10 for isolated [PtO4 ]2+ cations is confirmed computationally for low temperatures only, but hasn't yet been experimentally verified. For high OS species, oxidation of the ligands, for example, of O-2 with formation of . O-1 and O-O bonds, and partial reduction of the metal center may be favorable, possibly leading to non-Lewis type structures.

Abstract: Atmospheric pressure X-ray spectroscopy techniques based on soft X-ray excitation can provide powerful interface-sensitive chemical information about a solid surface immersed in a gas or liquid environment. However, X-ray illumination of such dense phases can lead to the generation of considerable quantities of radical species by radiolysis. Soft X-ray absorption measurements of Cu films in both air and aqueous alkali halide solutions reveal that this can cause significant evolution of the Cu oxidation state. In air and NaOH (0.1 M) solutions, the Cu is oxidized toward CuO, while the addition of small amounts of CH3OH to the solution leads to reduction toward Cu2O. For Ni films in NaHCO3 solutions, the oxidation state of the surface is found to remain stable under X-ray illumination and can be electrochemically cycled between a reduced and oxidized state. We provide a consistent explanation for this behavior based on the products of X-ray-induced radiolysis in these different environments and highlight a ...

Abstract: A novel mechanism for the final stages of Nature’s photosynthetic water oxidation to molecular oxygen is proposed. This is based on a comparison of experimental and broken symmetry density functional theory (BS-DFT) calculated geometries and magnetic resonance properties of water oxidizing complex models in the final metastable oxidation state, S3. We show that peroxo models of the S3 state are in vastly superior agreement with the current experimental structural determinations compared with oxo–hydroxo models. Comparison of experimental and BS-DFT calculated 55Mn hyperfine couplings for the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) visible form shows better agreement for the oxo–hydroxo model. An equilibrium between oxo–hydroxo and peroxo models is proposed for the S3 state and the major implications for the final steps in the water oxidation mechanism are analyzed and discussed.

Abstract: Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) featuring isolated coordinatively unsaturated metal sites (CUS) have enormous potential as single-site catalysts. In particular, mixed-metal MOFs may exhibit unique catalytic properties compared to their monometallic counterparts. Herein, we report a thorough fundamental study on the mixed-metal CuPd-HKUST-1 ([Cu3–xPdx(BTC)2]n; BTC = 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylate) including the two-step synthesis, characterization, and catalytic performance evaluation. The combined results from a multitechnique approach provide solid evidence that the chemical properties of HKUST-1 can be tuned via successful incorporation of Pd–CUS into the framework, leading to the formation of new Cu–Pd and/or Pd–Pd dimers. The introduction of Pd occurs exclusively at the metal nodes in a controlled manner while retaining the structural integrity. The incorporated Pd ions have an oxidation state of +2, whereas no PdO or metallic Pd nanoparticles embedded inside MOFs are detected. These mixed-metal CuPd-MOF...

Abstract: Organometallic reaction mechanisms are assumed to be appropriately described by minimum energy pathways mapped out by density functional theory calculations. For the two-step oxidative addition/reductive elimination mechanism for C–H activation of methane and benzene by cationic Cp*(PMe3)IrIII(CH3), we report quasiclassical direct dynamics simulations that demonstrate the IrV–H intermediate is bypassed in a significant amount of productive trajectories initiated from vibrationally averaged velocity distributions of oxidative addition transition states. This organometallic dynamical mechanism is akin to the σ-bond metathesis pathway but occurs on the oxidative addition/reductive elimination energy surface and blurs the line between two- and one-step mechanisms. Quasiclassical trajectories also reveal that the momentum of crossing the reductive elimination structure always induces complete alkane and arene dissociation from the Ir metal center, skipping weak C–H σ and π coordination complexes. This suggests...