Abstract: The current emergence of a new space economy is leading to the exploration of outer space towards unforeseen futures Space tourism is a new addition to the tourism industry, prompted in large part

Abstract: This paper explores selected long-term sustainability issues related to increasing activities in outer space, with a particular focus on the economics of space debris. It reviews trends of selected space sustainability issues and discusses a range of possible policy actions. A notable policy response would be to strengthen space situational awareness systems and data reporting structures, while addressing operator compliance behaviour at both the national and international levels. Adequately addressing these challenges will require a reinforced coordinated international approach, in addition to increased collaboration with the private sector.

Abstract: As the United States creates the Space Force as a service within the Department of the Air Force, RAND assessed which units to bring into the Space Force, analyzed career field sustainability, and drew lessons from other defense organizations. The report focuses on implications for effectiveness, efficiency, independence, and sense of identity for the new service.

Abstract: The new forms of the use of outer space, such as space resources activities, not only will provide a vital contribution to research and industry, but could also entail a negative impact to the space environment. The present article aims at discussing from a legal perspective crucial problems such as how we shall ensure that the entities active in the area of space resources take environmental concerns into account, how we shall ensure that they utilize the best possible and least invasive technology and whether they should restore the ‘mining’ area when finishing their tasks.

Abstract: ‘Planetary sustainability’, as developed in this article, is a transitory term, marking the conceptional change from perceiving the Earth as a globe to recognising it rather as a planet. Although the traditional Brundtland sustainability definition comprises ecological, economic and social dimensions to perpetuate the fulfilment of humankind’s needs for the next generations, the planetary aspect of sustainability leads to the acknowledgement that there will be an end to human civilisation if humankind does not move into space sooner or later. Concerning space mining, this move might happen in our age. Given this fact, and the contemporary situation concerning space debris, ‘ethics of planetary sustainability’ as well as space environment ethics are needed. It would also make sense to add an 18th Sustainable Development Goal called ‘Space Environment’ to the current 17 Global Goals, as a sort of a political demand to complete what then could better be called the ‘Planetary Plan’. Contribution: The increasing economic use of outer space makes it necessary to include this domain in the sustainability discussion. The article calls for an 18th United Nations Sustainable Development Goal “Space Environment”, providing theological and philosophical reasoning for the need of an ethics of planetary sustainability.

Abstract: This paper situates the ongoing debate and recently changing political narrative around the fundamental principle of “peaceful purposes” as enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty. The origins and evol...

Abstract: This study analyses the role of rare earth elements (REE) as critical resources for the energy security. This research presents the developments in the global REE extraction, i.e. the dominance of the Republic of China, which attempts to maintain and control its monopoly. The typical and novel uses of rare earth metals were presented in various applications, such as in advanced electronic and information technologies utilised in the aerospace and energy industries. Bearing in mind their vital importance to the manufacturing of high-tech products, the REE deposits are of strategic importance for the USA, the Republic of China and for the European Union. Striving to maintain the independence of raw materials, the USA is focused on the search for raw materials on its territory and furthermore on waiving the legal restrictions with respect to their extraction. China is primarily occupied with maintaining the monopoly and control over the global market of critical raw materials, including REE. The activities within the European Union concentrate on the exploration in search for the REE deposits in Europe and ensuring the continuity of supplies by maintaining good diplomatic relations with partners – the USA and Japan. In addition, extensive REE recycling initiatives are being undertaken in the EU. Further rare earth metals extraction is anticipated to extend to the outer space. However, developing the economically viable methods of extraction remains the major challenge faced by space mining, given that it requires establishing an expensive, permanent space infrastructure. What is more, mining and processing of rare earth metals raises serious environmental concerns, as it involves such hazards as radioactive products, toxic chemical compounds and waste generation. With respect to the environmental protection, this study also addresses the issues of REE substitutes and recycling. It is concluded that the environmental protection practices regarding the long-term extraction and use of REE (with a 2030 horizon) will bring substantial long-term financial benefits.

Abstract: After the adoption of “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” by the UN General Assembly in 2015, the UN Committee on the Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes included in its agenda an item on the development of the Space-2030 plan. It highlighted one of the most important issues that requires increased attention from the world community - regulation of the research, development and use of space resources. The existing legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies is based on the principles laid down in the 60–70s of the last century, and in many aspects it does not meet the modern needs of the community. Based on the analysis of the modern international legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies, the article identifies the legal problems that arise when considering the issue of mining on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

Abstract: Background: Space technologies have been used in each aspect of mankind’s life, including health The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) has instigated several programs to address how space technologies can contribute to global health Aims: This article deepened the understanding of how space technology contributes to global health and identified how it may be used in the context of COVID-19 Results: This research identified four different domains of space technology that can or may contribute to global health, which are remote sensing, global navigation satellite system, satellite communication, and human space flight Generally, these four domains can track disease outbreaks and help mitigate its spread such as by minimizing patient contact with medical personnel They also keep daily activities such as communication and work afloat Future developments in space technologies may prove to have an even bigger role to minimize spread Conclusion: Space technologies are invaluable in helping healthcare personnel and governments track the disease’s sources and spread Also, they can identify locations with the most damage, and thus immediate actions can be taken Keywords : geographic information system, infectious disease, outbreak, remote sensing, space technology

Abstract: In recent years, space debris has become a matter of considerable importance within the public perception of spaceflight activities. As media coverage, outreach activities and stakeholder interest in orbital waste gain more and more relevance, so does the question of how space debris can be understood as a sociotechnical challenge that contemporary and future societies depending on space-based services need 70to address. Similar to problems like climate change or marine pollution, space debris appears as a sustainability issue of global magnitude that requires us to think about outer space in terms of a sustainable societal future. Yet, space debris also differs from such seemingly comparable challenges in some regards, as, for example, it is only to be understood within the context of recent space sector developments like the rise of New Space. Paying attention to security concerns as well as the specific ecological status of outer space environments, we outline possible avenues to painting a better picture of space debris’ role in contemporary public and policy debates. Bringing to the table a perspective influenced by Science and Technology Studies (STS), we thereby highlight space debris to be a bidirectional risk phenomenon. We conclude, that broader societal engagement in facing the challenge of space debris might be vital for handling it efficiently and effectively and propose potential vectors for stakeholder participation.

Abstract: Journalists often portray the Arctic and Space as rife with economic competition, contested territorial claims, and impending conflicts. In actuality, there is extensive and ongoing cooperation between Russia and Western states in both regions. A number of factors common to the Arctic and to Space contribute to this ongoing cooperation, including ‘complex interdependence’ and widely agreed rules of international law. This article focuses on three further common factors: the ‘cold, dark, and dangerous’ character of the regions; the absence of substantial ‘weaponisation’; and the relative ease with which information about military activities may be gathered in the Arctic and Space, for instance through Space-based technologies. The latter factor enables Arctic and Space-faring states to avoid classic ‘security dilemmas’.

Abstract: The use and exploration of outer space is, according to the Outer Space Treaty (OST), to be carried out for the benefit and interest of all parties. Outer space is critically important to the defen...

Abstract: Humankind is increasingly able to travel into outer space. Launch costs have decreased; launch frequencies have increased. These changes are primarily occurring due to private companies becoming he...

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to identify the means of dispute settlement that are available to both states and private actors in cases relating to outer space commercial activities, as well as to show what each of these means has to offer to its potential users. In furtherance of this purpose, the article will analyze the challenges typically associated with different types of dispute settlement, such as mediation, arbitration and adjudication. In Part I, the author will present the questions and issues of interest regarding space activities’ dispute resolution that will be examined in Parts II and III. Part II will deal with some of the venues before which parties to a dispute involving outer space activities may bring their cases and will try to identify key advantages and disadvantages posed by each of those methods. Finally, Part III will include some conclusory remarks, wherein the author will attempt to identify by virtue of comparison the best ways to resolve a dispute pertaining to outer space activities based on the status of the parties under international law and the remaining challenges to be tackled by the existing regime of dispute settlement.

Abstract: As suborbital space tourism gears up, the decades-old debate about the boundary of Earth’s atmosphere continues.

Abstract: While nuclear energy has been very influential in meeting the energy needs of Earth, it also has implications and uses in outer space exploration Nuclear energy can be used as a source of power for various space mission in space or on planetary/space platforms and more importantly it can be used for propulsion in order to achieve high specific impulses to allow the spacecraft to reach its destinations faster This chapter discusses the use of nuclear energy for propulsion in spacecraft and also as a source of power for space missions While nuclear energy has been used since 1960s in space missions in various forms, many new techniques also have been developed in the last 10 years, which may pave the way for future space missions that will allow mankind to reach further destinations and to establish long-term outposts in space As long as Le Reve Des Toiles’ or the Dream of Stars continues to be the main dynamo of mankind, nuclear energy in space applications will be at the forefront of space exploration for many decades to come This chapter focuses on the existing nuclear applications in space exploration since the early 1960s as well as any future work that is going on related to this field

Abstract: With the increasing reliance on space assets for civilian, commercial, and military purposes, there is a need to safeguard their full operability and enhance their security. The uncontrolled use of weapons in outer space has the potential to increase space debris, destroy critical space assets and impair their ongoing functionality, and negatively impact space security. The current international law regime applicable to outer space does not prohibit the placement or use of all weapons in outer space, prohibiting only nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction, and is not currently capable of preventing a conventional arms race in outer space.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 I. THE RISE OF SPACEFARING COMPANIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 II. THE TREATY FRAMEWORK GOVERNING LIABILITY IN SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 A. The Outer Space Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 B. The Liability Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 III. THE LIABILITY CONVENTION FAILS TO PROVIDE AN EFFECTIVE LIABILITY REGIME AS APPLIED TO SPACEFARING COMPANIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 A. “Launching State” Ambiguities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 B. Flag States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 C. Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 IV. AMEND THE LIABILITY CONVENTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 A. An International Approach Is Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 B. Hold Companies Directly Liable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 C. What Would This New Regime Look Like?. . . . . . . . . . . . 353 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

Abstract: Space technology development shows feasibility of actualizing future space mining. There are numerous efforts to utilize resources from celestial bodies; whether as fuel, an alternative source for scarce minerals, or as an in-situ support for future human habitation in outer space. This article identifies potential clashes between ongoing space mining practices and the interests of developing nations. The main concern is accessibility: will the race to dominate space mining leave no room for non-space faring nations to utilize space resources, or even access potential space mining locations? The current international space law has several loopholes such as the absence of provisions regarding ownership of space resources, and the lack of inclusion of private actors, especially considering their role in furthering the space mining industry. This article also examines Indonesia’s regulation on space activities, including mining and provide recommendations. Current regulations imply there is a vision for Indonesia to be a large space actor in the future, but no instrument puts specific focus as of yet to space mining. Lack of dedicated funding and technology also exist, but there are various opportunities to attain this, provided Indonesia is able to utilize them for national interests.

Abstract: This paper outlines some of the difficulties faced by archaeologists studying human activity in outer space. The International Space Station Archaeological Project has identified solutions to these problems, including the use of historic photographic archives and documentation of discard practices such as processes associated with the return of space-flown items to Earth.

Abstract: The scientific considerations presented in this paper concern threats to national security arising from the activity in outer space. The objective of this analysis is to identify these dangers and to propose solutions to minimize them. The theoretical research methods employed in this study are: synthesis, analysis, abstracting and generalization. In the course of the analysis, several modern threats were established, including anti-satellite and hypersonic weapons. Another important sphere discussed in the paper is the cyber security of satellite/communication devices and systems operating in space. With respect to satellite systems, the EA-18G Growler electronic warfare aircraft was presented as one of the concepts developed with the capability of disrupting their operation. The results from the conducted study emphasize the need to create a Space Domain Awareness (SDA) system, which is substantiated by the indication of natural threats that must beminimized, namely space debris, space weather and the possibility of collision with Near-Earth Objects. The presented considerations are concluded by the analysis of the legislative state regarding space security, which in reality accentuate the incompatibility of the existing laws with the emerging threats, and other issues concerning space law.