Abstract: The use of outer space continues to grow and is becoming more congested, competitive, and contested. This results in an increased need to ensure its protection. Existing international laws do not adequately regulate debris-causing space weapons and only provide restrictions for weapons of mass destruction. This article argues that there is a valid need to regulate space weapons, given the destabilizing effects of space weapons and the overall threat to the space environment. The article culminates with recommended courses of action for how to regulate space weapons.

Abstract: This article discusses the normative essence of the principle of non-appropriation in outer space as envisaged in Article II of the Outer Space Treaty, as well as its standing under customary international law. The analysis is structured with reference to the general public international law framework that governs the acquisition of territory by states, following the territorially based paradigm still prevalent in international law theory in stressing that the non-appropriation principle is indeed a norm of most increased significance within the corpus juris spatialis, i.e. the Grundnorm of international space law.

Abstract: The term space security is often used, but seldom analyzed. This is a significant gap in the literature of space politics, as it posits considerable implications for debates on how to deal with a runaway growth in the space debris population, and how we argue for or against space weaponization. Securitizing all threats in space may lead to greater difficulties in enacting debris removal measures, as these systems are inherently dual-use. A case is made for keeping space security in its traditional connotations of national security so that environmental issues related to orbital debris can be resolved with reduced security concerns in a space development framing.

Abstract: The wealth-creating potential of outer space commerce is tremendous. Companies such as SpaceX are successfully providing private sector responses to public sector demands for transportation to the International Space Station. Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries promise to create wealth by mining asteroids for rare metals and water. And Virgin Galactic and Space Adventures are pioneering the market for space tourism. The world's first commercial spaceport, Spaceport America, in New Mexico, which cost nearly $209 million to build, is already in use by SpaceX and Virgin Galactic. In addition, high-powered investors, such as Elon Musk (creator of PayPal, now CEO of SpaceX), Larry Page (co-founder of Google, now also involved with Planetary Resources), and Sir Richard Branson (chairman of the Virgin Group, the venture capital conglomerate behind Virgin Galactic), are pouring hundreds of millions of dollars of their own capital into outer space ventures. (1) Yet an ominous feature of the celestial environment seems to threaten the ability of outer space commerce to achieve its potential: celestial anarchy. Although, terrestrially, governments enjoy the sovereignty over their territories needed for the state to define and enforce property rights in those territories, celestially, things are quite different. In outer space, much as in international space, no government has sovereignty. This fact is enshrined in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, signed by the spacefaring nations. Article II of the treaty prohibits signatory nations from extending territorial jurisdiction to celestial bodies. (2) In practice, at least, the same Article prevents even private citizens from using their sovereigns to define or enforce privately held property rights in celestial bodies. (3) As White (2002: 84) points out, "in common law countries such as the United States, legal theory dictates that the government must have sovereignty over territory before it can confer title on its citizens. Consequently, traditional real property rights [in outer space] are inconsistent with this theory." The problem celestial anarchy seems to create here is straightforward. Private parties who have property disputes when operating in outer space need to settle their disputes in courts of law. But such courts are within the legal domains of national sovereigns. Enforcing private parties' property rights in outer space therefore requires a de facto concession of national sovereignty, running afoul of Article II. (4) As Pop (2000: 281) puts it, because "the Outer Space Treaty prohibits the national appropriation of outer space and celestial bodies, a State endorsement" of private parties' property rights in such bodies "would be interpreted as a means of national appropriation, hence it would be unlawful." Economists have long highlighted the necessity of private property rights for thriving commercial activity (e.g., Smith 1776, Mises 1949, Alchian and Demsetz 1973, North 1990). Without some means of enforcing claims to mine and thine, individuals have little incentive to risk investing in and growing commercial enterprises. This is as true for celestial enterprises as it is for terrestrial ones. As White (2000: 2) notes, "Implementing [a] real property regime would provide greater legal certainty to investors and entities participating in the development and settlement of outer space." Celestial anarchy thus appears to pose a serious obstacle to flourishing outer space commerce. But what if private parties sidestepped the problem posed by sovereigns' inability to support celestial property rights by enforcing such rights privately--that is., without reliance on any government? Pop (2000: 281) summarizes the conventional view of this possibility: "Appropriation of land can exist outside the sphere of sovereignty, but its survival is dependent upon endorsement from a sovereign entity." (5) In other words, it is widely believed that a purely private celestial property rights regime is not possible. …

Abstract: Introduction: Polar Stars and Stellar Stripes 1. Rising to the Sputnik Challenge 2. The Space and Antarctic Frontiers 3. Antarctica and the Greening of America 4. The Tenacious Grip of the Space Frontier Conclusion: The End of American Frontier Nationality

Abstract: Astrotheology explores the relationship between theology and space exploration to identify elements of religion and myth in discussions of space science and to prepare people for possible future developments. So far, the dominant focus has been the search for extraterrestrial life and intelligence. This paper broadens the discussion to include human life in outer space. Like religion, spaceflight has its prophets and evangelists, visions of utopia, transcendent experiences and promises of salvation. Spaceflight raises new questions for astrotheologians, in such areas as religious observance in space, ethics, and how spaceflight may influence traditional religions or give rise to new movements. Rather than ignoring links between religion and spaceflight, space scientists and advocates should seek to understand how religion influences human attitudes towards and activities in space.

Abstract: Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan and Daniel A. Porras (eds.), Awaiting Launch: Perspectives on the Draft ICOC for Outer Space Activities; New Delhi, Observer Research Foundation, 2014, Pages 275.Space Security is a relatively new concept in the overall security paradigm despite its ever-growing relevance in our daily lives. This fast growing dependence on space assets, with increasing relevance in the socio-economic and security domains, has important consequences. The outer space has become crowded, congested and competitive. To be able to continue using outer space well into the future, it is time that some rules of the road are clearly spelt out. The Outer Space Treaty that came into existence in 1967 is a good measure. However, the context in which it was written is very different from the extant circumstances. There are several lacunae including definitional aspects such as what constitutes peaceful activity, which need to be fixed.Given this backdrop, there are several efforts being made to regulate the activities in outer space. One such effort is the European Union (EU) proposed International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (ICOC). While this document is quite comprehensive in its scope and coverage, the ICOC came under international opposition, principally because of the process by which they developed it. While the EU has made efforts in enlisting greater support for the ICOC, there are still a few outstanding issues that need to be worked out before it can ensure a large support base.Awaiting Launch: Perspectives on the Draft ICOC for Outer Space Activities, edited by Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan and Daniel Porras is an important contribution in this debate. The editors argue that the idea of establishing certain ground rules in the outer space domain is real. They cite at least three key reasons as to why there is a need for an effective space regime. The reasons given are: securing outer space from any danger or threat to space utility; maintaining order and ensuring that freedom of action in space does not create adverse, harmful effects on outer space; and sustainability, so that space continues to be used only for peaceful purposes and so on. All of these objectives are shared by most states, at least rhetorically. Even as most countries agree on these broad objectives, the political differences have been a big hindrance in establishing certain ground rules with regard to activities in outer space.As Dr. Rajagopalan and Mr. Porras note, the strength of this book lies in the diverse perspectives brought together, with contributions made by practitioners from the academic, scientific and industry community, as also views coming from various continents like Africa, Asia, America and Europe. The book is divided into three sections: the ICOC debates in the context of outer space regime that deals with specific issues such as the space debris, and right to self defence among others; unique perspectives that highlight the role of industries, and universities in space security; and lastly regional perspectives that has views emerging from Africa, Latin America and Asia.These days, launching of satellites for other countries is seen from a commercial perspective as well as an important aspect of soft power projection. As argued by Beatrice Fihn and Gabriella Irsten, "Space is one of few global commons that border every community on earth. It has become an increasingly important factor for the economy, communications and development. As our dependency on space assets has grown, it is becoming increasingly important to address the issue of safety and security in space, and to preserve this unique environment so all can use it responsibly". …

Abstract: The aim of this chapter is to provide some insight into the legal aspects of space activities from the perspective of a non-lawyer. Engineers and scientists increasingly express an interest in the legal aspects of space activities. Law is sometimes seen as barring technological progress by imposition of prescriptive rules and regulations, but the understanding that law can also protect and promote the interests of space science and technology is gaining ground.

Abstract: A nation’s space objects are not immune from warfare or conflict just because they are in orbit around the Earth. Countries should assume that their space assets can and will be targeted during hostilities both kinetically and non-kinetically. This chapter describes relevant technological developments in the space domain and how they are of military significance now, and potentially in the future. This chapter describes the development of space-based capabilities, some of which simply enable terrestrial warfare, but some of which potentially involve weapons ‘through’, ‘to’, ‘in’ and ‘from’ space. It also explores the utility and constraints of such capabilities, and theories about how such capabilities should be used.

Abstract: The present report contains the study on outer space transparency and confidencebuilding measures conducted by the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities, which was established by the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The study was adopted by consensus. The Group concluded that the world's growing dependence on space-based systems and technologies and the information they provide requires collaborative efforts to address threats to the sustainability and security of outer space activities. Transparency and confidence-building measures can reduce, or even eliminate, misunderstandings, mistrust and miscalculations with regard to the activities and intentions of States in outer space.

Abstract: Current space exploration can be viewed as an augmentation of the activities of the 20th century, albeit with a greater emphasis on new technologies and privatisation. With the continuation of this trend, could outer space be in danger of becoming a vast territory exposed to the voracity of would-be prospectors, manned by robots? Rachel Armstrong, Professor of Experimental Architecture at Newcastle University and guest-editor of the April 2000 AD Space Architecture issue, advocates a much more far-reaching biological definition of Space, driven by a concern for the natural environment, that emphasises its potential as an ecology for living in.

Abstract: It has been 20 years since planning began for the 1995 United Nations International Conference on Near-Earth Objects. The conference proceedings established the scientific basis for an international organizational framework to support research and collective actions to mitigate a potential near-Earth object (NEO) threat to the planet. Since that time, researchers have conducted telescope surveys that should, within the coming decade, answer many questions about the size, number, and Earth impact probability of these objects. Space explorations to asteroids and comets have been successfully carried out, including sample recovery. Laboratory experiments and computer simulations at Sandia National Laboratories have analyzed the effects of soft X-ray radiation on meteorites - which might help researchers develop a way to redirect an incoming asteroid by vaporizing a thin layer of its surface. An Action Team on NEOs, established in 2001 in response to recommendations of the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, identified the primary components of NEO mitigation and emphasized the value of finding potentially hazardous NEOs as soon as possible. Recommendations from the Action Team are meant to ensure that all nations are aware of the NEO danger; and to coordinate mitigation activities among nations that could be affected by an impact, as well as those that might play an active role in any eventual deflection or disruption campaign.

Abstract: This article presents a thesis that most readers will find surprising, in an effort to develop a novel, simultaneous solution to three urgent, complex problems related to outer space. The three problems are: a) the technical fact that debris in outer space (the accumulated orbital junk produced by decades of space activities) has grown to present a serious hazard to safe and effective exploration and exploitation of space; b) the strategic fact that many countries (notably the United States, China and Russia, but others, too) continue to demonstrate a misguided interest in pursuing anti-satellite weapons, which can jeopardize the security of space; and c) the political fact that attempts to provide additional legal regulation of outer space (via new bilateral or multilateral international agreements) have failed, with little prospect for prompt conclusion of meaningful new accords.The proposed solution is to adapt existing international law in an unforeseen way. Specifically, numerous current and historical arms control treaties provide for verification of parties’ compliance via “national technical means” (NTM) of verification, which prominently include satellite-based sensory and communications systems. These treaties routinely provide protection for those essential space assets by requiring parties to undertake “not to interfere” with NTM. The argument developed here is that additional tests in space of debris-creating anti-satellite weapons would already be illegal, even without the conclusion of any dedicated new treaty against further weaponization of space, because in the current crowded conditions of space, a new cloud of orbital debris would, sooner or later, impermissibly interfere with NTM satellites.If sustained, this thesis can provide a new rationale for opposition to the development, testing, and use of anti-satellite weapons. It a legal reinforcement for the political instincts to avoid activities that further undercut the optimal usability of outer space, and it demonstrates how creative re-interpretation of existing legal provisions can promote the advancement of the rule of international law, even in circumstances where the articulation of new treaties is blocked.

Abstract: Extending human activities to outer space has been a major target of space engineering from its inception. We have long dreamed of space flight, been curious about the origin of the universe, our solar system, and life on Earth (Tsiolkovsky in Exploration of world space with rockets. Kaluga Press, Russia). Even with recent discoveries of many extra-solar planets, Earth remains a uniquely habitable planet.

Abstract: This research studies the future perspectives for Malaysian space law. It aims at demonstrating the development of Malaysian outer space activities inclusive of her status with respect to United Nations space conventions and her membership of international and regional space-related organizations. On the basis of assisting Malaysia to develop her national space legislation, this study analyses the legal frameworks of selected national outer space legislations. It discusses some major aspects that Malaysia should consider while drafting the content of her space legislation and explains the reasons why the legislation is necessary. It proposes a number of significant clauses that need to be incorporated in the Malaysian Outer Space Act. The study concludes with proposing a feasible draft specimen of a Malaysian Outer Space Act with an expectation that it can become a guideline to rationalize the actual Malaysian Outer Space Act and will positively influence the Malaysian law makers. It ends with outlining various legal impacts on Malaysia, ASEAN and world space activities should the enactment of the Malaysian Outer Space Act become a reality.

Abstract: Several major developments in 2009 contributed to South Africa's 180 year involvement in space science and technology. These include the release of the South African National Space Policy; the establishment of a South African National Space Agency; and the launch of the first government-owned satellite. This article contextualises South Africa's space ambitions within the international politics of Outer Space. It proceeds with an overview of the country's space facilities, programmes, policies and institutions, and with a discussion of South Africa's predominantly functionalist and symbolic space diplomacy. The article concludes with some caveats pertaining to the implementation of South Africa's ambitious National Space Policy, and the expansion of its space interests in a competitive global environment. 1. INTRODUCTION Four important space-related events took place in South Africa in 2009, namely it celebrated the 180th anniversary of astronomy in the country; the South African government released its National Space Policy in March 2009; the National Space Agency is to be established in terms of the South African National Space Agency Act (Act 36 of 2008); and the country's first government-built satellite, Sumbandila-SAT, was launched. These events and developments are illustrative of South Africa's space ambitions. As an analysis of South Africa's space policy and interests the purpose of this article is fourfold, namely to provide an historical background to space science and technology in South Africa; to outline the country's space facilities, programmes and policies; to analyse its space diplomacy; and to assess the international significance of the country's space ambitions. 2. THE ORIGINS OF SOUTH AFRICA'S SPACE INTERESTS In 1685, 76 years after Galileo's first astronomical observations, a Jesuit priest en route to Siam (Thailand), Father Guy Tachard, established a temporary observatory in what is now known as Cape Town. In 1751, France's Royal Academy of Sciences sent the Abbe Nicolas-Louis de La Caille to the Cape where he set up an observatory in what is now Strand Street, Cape Town. Between 1751 and 1753, De La Caille charted the positions of almost 10 000 stars, catalogued 42 nebulas, discovered 14 new constellations and is today widely regarded as the founder of modern Southern Hemisphere astronomy. (1) In 1820, the British Admiralty agreed to construct an observatory at the Cape, which was completed in 1829 and run by the Cambridge mathematician and clergyman, Reverend Fearon Fallows. Fallows' assistant and wife, Mary Ann Fallows, who discovered a comet in the constellation of Octans, is regarded as South Africa's first female astronomical observer. Fallows' successor, Thomas Henderson, compiled a catalogue of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere and, at the time, made the most accurate calculation of the distance between the Earth and the Moon. Henderson was succeeded by Thomas Maclear and Sir John Herschel, both of whom made significant contributions. Maclear founded geodetic surveys in South Africa and Herschel catalogued 1 707 clusters and nebulae, and more than 2 000 binary stars. Since 1879, Herschel's successor, David Gill produced a photographic survey of the Southern Skies which was published as Carte du Ciel (Map of the Heavens) and the Cape Photographic Durch-musterung (catalogue). (2) During the 1900s, scientific exploration was interrupted by the South African War, and World War I and II. From the middle of the 20th century, Cold War political and scientific imperatives provided new impetus to South Africa's involvement in Outer Space. In 1958, merely a few months after the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, South Africa's first satellite tracking facility near Johannesburg--funded by the United States (US) space agency, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)--became operational. In 1961 it was moved to Hartebeesthoek, west of Pretoria and renamed the Deep Space Implementation Facility. …

Abstract: With the first proper commercial sub-orbital ‘space tourist’ flights seemingly around the corner, the need to develop a proper legal system addressing all relevant parameters, scenarios and events also arises more visibly. This is particularly true for the United States, where so far the major developments in private manned spaceflight are concentrated, some of which may soon move from relatively straightforward up-and-down sub-orbital trajectories to longer-duration suborbital and/or orbital flights, or even long-duration presence in (potentially private) space stations. As one author succinctly put it: humans are essentially unpredictable, and the longer their flights will be, the less pre-ordained and foreseeable will their activities be. As a consequence, the somewhat haphazard and multi-faceted approach US national law has so far taken vis-a-vis space activities now threatens to result in major gaps, notably in the exercise of domestic jurisdiction for the purpose of compliance with US international responsibilities and liabilities under the outer space treaties. In between the regulatory competencies of the FAA (to license launch and re-entry), FCC (to license and regulate satellite operations as far as the use of radio-frequencies and attendant orbits is concerned), NOAA (to license and regulate remote sensing satellite operations) and NASA (to regulate life on board manned US civil space vehicles and the ISS, at least as far as the US modules and/or US astronauts is concerned), questions now arise in Congress for example as to how to legally address a future space tourist turned unruly passenger. The paper addresses these issues in some detail, which includes touching upon some vexing definitional issues as regards ‘launch’, ‘re-entry’, ‘sub-orbital’, ‘orbital’ and ‘outer space’ itself as these might ultimately have to be clarified before a comprehensive, logical and effective legal regime for exercising of US national jurisdiction as appropriate and necessary can be developed.

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Abstract: A brief scientific and historical essay on the history of designing rocket technology and exploring near and outer space around the Earth is given.

Abstract: All small satellites, irrespective of their size, weight, and scope of missions, are space objects that are governed by currently applicable international legal guidelines. Secondly, the launching and operation of such satellites constitute space activities in the form of exploration and use of outer space. Thus, they are also subject to such guidelines. These guidelines have been established primarily through the United Nations. It consists of five major international treaties negotiated through the U. N. Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. In addition to these treaties, there are several U. N. Regulations and Guidelines, principles, and rules of general international law, and some other international agreements that are directly applicable to small satellites. It can be said that, in general, all international rights and obligations of the states with respect to big satellites are equally relevant for the conduct of space activities involving the use of small satellites. Here is a brief list of such rights and obligations:

Abstract: A space observatory is an instrument in outer space which is used for observations of distant astronomical objects. Space telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, can observe these objects without a disturbing atmosphere, which enhances the sensibility for light out of the visible spectrum. The atmosphere is absorbing Gamma-, X-rays and big parts of the UV radiation. Especially unmatched results in the observations of the ultraviolet and infra red areas of light can be produced. The main problem is that these instruments are very expensive to build and to maintain and the major question now is if space observations provide an adequate advantage despite the enormous costs, keeping in mind that new techniques have been developed for ground-based telescopes that will make it able to minimize the disturbing influences of the atmosphere. In this article, the Hubble Space Telescope will be used as an example to show that important scientific knowledge has been gained as well as new understandings in terms of development and morphology of galaxies. With the Hubble Deep Field, which has been produced by the Hubble Space Telescope, scientists were able to take the deepest look in our Universe so far and were able to detect unobserved redshifts. Through these new cosmological discoveries, by the example of the Hubble Space Telescope, it is proved that additional insights can and will be made by investing in future space observatories and telescopes. Therefore, it has to be considered that the benefits do outweigh the costs.

Abstract: This article is based on the theory of vortex gravitation and physical abnormalities of the Earth - slowing its rotation. Defined orbital acceleration, weight, approach to the Sun and the age of our planet. Offered to justify the creation of planetary material in the center of the Earth torsion, and not as the accumulation of cosmic dust and meteorites from outer space.