Abstract: Near-Earth orbit is a key global resource, hosting assets critical to governments, militaries and commercial entities and providing services for global communications, remote sensing, national and international security, and accurate positioning and timing. It is also an increasingly crowded, congested and contested environment, at risk from both intentional and unintentional activities and events, and threats natural and human-made. Ensuring the long-term sustainability of the space environment is an increasingly recognized need by all users of space. This article considers the viability of principles regarding sustainable common-pool resources (CPRs) established by Elinor Ostrom for space governance. In this initial consideration, we focus specifically on the issues of boundaries, collective choice arrangements and monitoring. Within those contexts, Ostrom’s principles appear most useful for identifying gaps in the current space governance system and mechanisms. Further, while Ostrom provides multiple success stories for her model, they typically include common-pool regimes functioning at a local level, with success stories on a larger scale elusive. Near-Earth orbit is perhaps the largest-scale CPR to consider. Consequently, not only is additional work needed to relate Ostrom’s model specifically to space, but to determine the limits of applicability of Ostrom’s model and other models that should be considered. Policy Implications • The global commons of outer space, particularly the region where satellites orbit around the Earth, faces a collective action problem of how to ensure the long-term sustainability of space activities. • The current governance mechanisms for outer space activities were largely developed during the cold war, and are not sufficient to deal with the collective action problems stemming from the growing number of space actors and users. • Space actors exist with varying levels of capabilities, which complicates defining resource appropriator rights and responsibilities. • Common agreement is needed among space actors on the bounds of the space domain to allow resource appropriators to set the governance limitations, who has the right to make use of it and what governance regime applies. • Existing institutions for debating, creating and modifying space governance regimes fall short of the requirement that most actors affected by the rules can participate in their creation. • Space situational awareness will play a crucial role in monitoring the status of the space commons, adherence to rules and norms, and creating transparency and confidence among space actors.

Abstract: Figures Abbreviations Acknowledgments Contributors Introduction European Astrofuturism, Cosmic Provincialism Historicizing the Space Age A.C.T.Geppert PART I: NARRATING OUTER SPACE Space, Time and Aliens:The Role of Imagination in Outer Space S.J.Dick Heaven on Earth: Tunguska, 30 June 1908 C.Schmolders Imagining Inorganic Life: Crystalline Aliens in Science and Fiction T.Brandstetter PART II: PROJECTING OUTER SPACE Projecting Landscapes of the Human Mind onto Another World: Changing Faces of an Imaginary Mars R.Eisfeld 'Smash the Myth of the Fascist Rocket Baron': East German Attacks on Wernher von Braun in the 1960s M.J.Neufeld Transcendence of Gravity: Arthur C. Clarke and the Apocalypse of Weightlessness: T.Bjornvig PART III: VISUALIZING OUTER SPACE Per Media Ad Astra?: Outer Space in West Germany's Media, 1957-87 B.Mutter Balloons on the Moon: Visions of Space Travel in Francophone Comic Strips G.de Syon 'A Stumble in the Dark': Contextualizing Gerry and Sylvia Anderson's Space: 1999 H.Keazor PART IV: ENCOUNTERING OUTER SPACE Life as We Don't Yet Know It: An Anthropologist's First Contact with the Science of 'Weird Life' D.Battaglia A Ghost in the Machine: How Sociology Tried to Explain (Away) American Flying Saucers and European Ghost Rockets, 1946-47 P.Lagrange Seeing the Future of Civilization in the Skies of Quarouble: UFO Encounters and the Problem of Empire in Postwar France J.Miller PART V: INSCRIBING OUTER SPACE Self-Reproducing Automata and the Impossibility of SETI G.Munevar Inscribing Scientific Knowledge: Interstellar Communication, NASA's Pioneer Plaque, and Contact with Cultures of the Imagination, 1971-72 W.R.Macauley Alien Spotting: Damien Hirst's Beagle 2 , Mars Lander'S Calibration Target and the Exploitation of Outer Space T.Weddigen Epilogue Look Up: Art in the Age of Orbitization P.Pocock Bibliography Index

Abstract: Outer space has after the Cold War enjoyed two decades of fairly peaceful development but is once again becoming more competitive and contested with increased militarization. Therefore, it is important the U.S. maintain its space superiority to ensure it has the capabilities modern warfare requires for successful operations. The difference with earlier periods in space is there is not a blatantly publicized arms race in space but instead a covert challenge to U.S. interest in maintaining superiority, resilience, and capability. There are a finite number of nations that consider themselves geopolitical actors, but as long as the U.S. maintains space superiority those states must play according to a set of rules written without their consent and forced upon them. For authoritarian regimes, U.S. space assets monitor their actions and pursuit of regional influence and this is quite disturbing. For them, any degradation or limitation of U.S. spaceborne capabilities would be seen as a successful outcome. Cyber warfare offers these adversarial actors the opportunity to directly or indirectly destroy U.S. space assets with minimal risk due to limited attribution and traceability.

Abstract: This article seeks to explore a notion of ‘British outer space’ in the mid 20th century with reference to the British Interplanetary Society and the works of Patrick Moore and Arthur C. Clarke. Geographies of outer space have been examined following early work by Denis Cosgrove on the Apollo space photographs. Cosgrove’s work has encouraged a growing body of work that seeks to examine both the ‘Earth from space’ perspective as well as its reciprocal, ‘space from Earth’. This article aligns itself with the latter viewpoint, in attempting to define a national culture of ‘British outer space’. This is found to have an important connection with the British Interplanetary Society, founded in 1933 near Liverpool, which went on to influence the works of Patrick Moore, who edited the magazine Spaceflight and presented the television programme The Sky at Night, and Arthur C. Clarke, who became known as a science fiction writer through his early novels in the 1950s. The themes of audience participation and human destiny in outer space are examined in a close reading of these two case studies, and further engagement with cultures of outer space in geography is encouraged.

Abstract: This is a draft version of the paper and will be expanded on in due course. With a new era dawning with regard to access to space and an increase in the number of nations capable of reaching and exploiting space; the field of space law as a whole needs to be re-evaluated. One such area where current legal thinking needs to be examined is with regard to the property rights to objects in space. While it was sufficient in the past for governments to frown upon the institutions of ownership in outer space and leave many space-related issues at an impasse, one would need to re-examine the current body of space-law and related international instruments against the light of the ability of developing countries and now private enterprises’ ability to partake in and commercially exploit space travel. This paper aims to investigate what types of property rights would or should be available to space-faring nations and individuals, as well as how these rights could be acquired. In order to know what property rights will be applicable, one also needs to re-define the objects to which those rights can be acquired. Characteristics such as the impersonality; tangibility, independence, susceptibility to control and the usefulness and value for mankind will once again be of crucial importance when it is necessary to determine if an object in space can be classified as an object with regard to which one can have property rights. When, for example, one is able to start colonizing and commercially exploiting heavenly bodies such as the Moon, Mars or even asteroids; it is only natural that people and governments will want to demarcate and protect their colonized territories and make use of the inherent ability to exclude others by means of property law to protect their investments and interests. These issues as they relate to sovereignty, jurisdiction and international law will be discussed and certain recommendations made as to how some of the problematical property law issues could be addressed for the benefit of all of man-kind. This will be discussed against the background of objects that are deemed to be res nullius (things belonging to nobody) as well as the theory of terra nullius (land belonging to nobody). A recommendation is made that private ownership of (sections of) celestial bodies should be recognised in certain instances.

Abstract: Bruno Rossi is considered one of the fathers of modern physics, being also a pioneer in virtually every aspect of what is today called high-energy astrophysics. At the beginning of 1930s he was the pioneer of cosmic ray research in Italy, and, as one of the leading actors in the study of the nature and behavior of the cosmic radiation, he witnessed the birth of particle physics and was one of the main investigators in this fields for many years. While cosmic ray physics moved more and more towards astrophysics, Rossi continued to be one of the inspirers of this line of research. When outer space became a reality, he did not hesitate to leap into this new scientific dimension. Rossi's intuition on the importance of exploiting new technological windows to look at the universe with new eyes, is a fundamental key to understand the profound unity which guided his scientific research path up to its culminating moments at the beginning of 1960s, when his group at MIT performed the first in situ measurements of the density, speed and direction of the solar wind at the boundary of Earth's magnetosphere, and when he promoted the search for extra-solar sources of X rays. A visionary idea which eventually led to the breakthrough experiment which discovered Scorpius X-1 in 1962, and inaugurated X-ray astronomy.

Abstract: : Significant debate surrounds the concept of "peaceful use of space" as it is delineated in various international treaties and in United States Space Policy. The U.S. interpretation of that concept allows for military space applications. Within this context, the author explores the following question: What are the legal limits concerning the fielding of a nonlethal electronic countermeasures capability in space? The potentially aggressive yet nonpersistent effect of electromagnetic jamming (EM jamming) blurs the lines between military support and military weapons. This thesis examines the various international and domestic treaties, laws, and policies to determine whether restrictions to fielding EM jamming in space exist. Other topics that are examined are as follows: What is the majority interpretation of "peaceful use of space"?; Where does outer space begin?; What is a weapon?; Does EM jamming qualify as a weapon?; and, Are all weapons prohibited from being placed in space? A legal determination regarding the fielding of a space-based EM jamming system is a necessary step towards developing and employing such a capability for the U.S. military.

Abstract: The potency and unique characteristics of GSO for placing communication satellites located only above equatorial states makes the GSO as part of natural resources. The equatorial states realized that the use of GSO has many advantages and has implications to their national interest. However, basic principle in space law, Outer Space Treaty 1967 (Art.II), states that equatorial states forbidden to claim ownership of any part of outer space, particularly claim in sovereignty. The principle “first come first served” in placing of satellite on GSO, practically only gives the advantage to developed countries which have high satellite technology. Hence, the level of technology of a state plays important role in developing of space law internationally. The equatorial states which are mostly developing states (low and middle level in technology in outer space activities) claimed their right to use natural resources for their national interest based on equatorial position principle.

Abstract: In recent years, both the United States and China have demonstrated their respective space weapons capabilities through two highly publicized anti-satellite missile strikes. Many commentators feared these actions might cascade into a full blow space weapons race. The outer space environment is a fragile place, and the proliferation of long-lived space weapon debris could threaten access to this global commons. Eventually, space warfare could one day have the effect of entombing the Earth in orbital debris and risking the space assets of every space-faring nation.During the summer of 2010 President Obama unveiled a space policy that called for international cooperation rejecting the unilateral approach adopted by the previous administration. This policy opens the door for a potential arms control treaty that would limit the development of space weapons. Yet, any potential agreement is still years from development. This article first examines space weapons and the international legal framework that currently governs their use. Then the article discusses the orbital debris caused by space weapons and the environmental protections within the existing law. Finally, this article argues that the theory of Mutually Assured Destruction as applied to the space environment and the international space legal framework supply enough deterrence to prevent the widespread use of space weapons without the need for additional international agreements.

Abstract: With the increasing privatisation of outer space activities, the issue of appropriate national licensing thereof and the consequent risks of cheap 'flags of convenience' being sought for the purpose is becoming more relevant. The paper assesses the possibility of such 'flags of convenience' arising in the context of space activities, as well as what could be done about it, all with reference to the law of the sea where the concept originally was coined.

Abstract: : Space environment concerns all the environmental conditions affecting the development of a space mission, from the very beginning of the design phase to the end of life in orbit, taking into account all intermediate stages, such as production, integration, testing and launching. Particularly, the spacecraft has to survive to the extreme conditions of outer space under a wide variety of circumstances, and some of them have to fulfil their missions in other planetary atmospheres. In this chapter the main aspects of space environment are described, focusing the attention on those which are of relevance from the point of view of the thermal control design.

Abstract: Outer space has enjoyed two decades of fairly peaceful development since the Cold War, but once again it is becoming more competitive and contested, with increased militarization. Therefore, it is important the United States maintain its space superiority to ensure it has the capabilities required by modern warfare for successful operations. Today is different from earlier periods of space development, 1 because there is not a blatantly overt arms race in space, 2 but instead a covert challenge to US interests in maintaining superiority, resilience, and capability. A finite number of states consider themselves geopolitical actors; however, as long as the United States maintains space superiority, they must play according to a set of rules written without their consent and forced upon them. US space assets monitor the actions of authoritarian regimes and their pursuit of regional influence—a practice these regimes find quite disturbing. There­ fore, any degradation or limitation of US space-borne capabilities would be seen as a successful outcome for such regimes. Cyber warfare offers these adversarial actors the opportunity to directly or indirectly destroy US space assets with minimal risk due to limited attribution and traceability. This article addresses how they might accomplish this objective. We must begin by examining US reliance on space before focusing on space clutter and the means an adversary might use to exploit it. While satellite pro­ tection is a challenge, there are several solutions the United States should consider in the years ahead.

Abstract: Kim, Doo Hwan.July, 2012.Space law and policy in the Republic of Korea,Report,[Vienna]United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

Abstract: The contribution of mass media to the public image of space travel is eminent. When science editor Werner Stratenschulte (1926–) of German television network Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) reviewed the television reports on NASA’s Apollo 8 mission in 1968 he wrote, ‘thanks to television the best show of the year has reached its audience.’1 Stratenschulte’s declaration underlines the fact that human activity in outer space was a media event. The topic of people in space was both new and extraordinary since space travel essentially means leaving all basics of terrestrial life behind, and therefore spaceflight events received a high degree of attention from an awed public.2 At the same time, space events depended on the mass media to be made publicly known (‘thanks to television’). In contrast to other events covered by the media, such as wars, natural disasters, economic crises, or sports events, individuals — aside from a minority of space personae — could not have any experiences, observations or memories of spaceflight independent of media coverage. The only alternative sources of information and interpretation on outer space were science fiction literature, cartoons and movies, as well as the popular science books that had earlier caught the public eye. After Sputnik’s launch in October 1957, however, nearly all social communication on spaceflight, in terms of public attention, was based on narratives offered by the mass media. Hence, mass-media narratives not only shaped, but also reflected what the public perceived as the realities of spaceflight.

Abstract: This paper analyzes how the international humanitarian law applies to the targetting of space objects as military objects. It explores the spectrum of possible types from military to commercial to satellites run by international organizations. The analysis used is primarily from an international law perspective, but United States military targetting procedures are also explored.

Abstract: by B. Goswami: “Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures (TCBMs) for Space Security are being debated at international level to simply eliminate all apprehensions of potentially harmful activities in outer space. However, the idea of TCBMs has two polarized positions, first being advocated by China and Russia, who press upon creation of a legally binding treaty against placement of weapon and use or threat of force in outer space, while on the other side, European Union has initiated a Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities, which is intended to be a soft law. The U.S. has entered into discussions relating to TCBMs for Space Security at international level, but it stringently opines that it will not enter any arrangement in form of soft or hard law, which restricts freedom of its actions in outer space. With such polarised opinions and lack of political will on the issue of TCBMs, in near future there are bleak chances of having an international instrument for space security. This article covers initiatives taken by various states or international bodies towards space security and presents the current standing of TCBMs for Space Security with suggestion for possible future outcomes.”

Abstract: Fifty years ago, the Space Age was not yet five years old hut the broad outlines of US space interests were visible. The year 1962 saw the first US human orbital flight by John Glenn on a converted Atlas Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Telstar 1 demonstrated the first transatlantic television, telephone, and fax transmissions by an active satellite. The United Kingdom became the third country to operate a satellite with the US launch of Ariel 1. Later that year, both Telstar 1 and Ariel 1 were seriously damaged when the United States detonated a 1.4-megaton nuclear device 250 miles over the Pacific Ocean in what was titled the Starfish Prime test. The Glenn flight and the Starfish Prime test respectively represented the civil and military bookends of US space interests that were to shape international, commercial, and scientific space activities. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Fifty years later, the United States is facing new challenges and opportunities in integrating its civil, commercial, and national security space interests in a dynamic global environment. Space activities today play critical roles in US national security, economic growth, and scientific achievements. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is an integral part of several critical infrastructures and enables functions ranging from survey and construction, to farming, finance, and air traffic management--not: to mention supporting US military forces worldwide. The International Space Station represents a unique collaborative partnership between the United States, Europe, Canada, Japan, and Russia. International space cooperation, space commerce, and international space security discussions could be used to reinforce each other in ways that would advance US interests in the sustainability and security of military and civil space activities. The past five years have seen the emergence of new threats to US space activities, threats that are different from those of the Cold War and which have their own distinct dynamics. Some threats are intentional and others are accidental. In some cases, threats come from a known nation state while in others, it is impossible to attribute responsibility due to a lack of full "space situational awareness" to support intelligence needs. In 2007, without prior notification, China tested a high altitude anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) against one of its old weather satellites. This test created tens of thousands of pieces of orbital debris and increased the risk of collision and damage to many satellites operating in low Earth orbit, including the International Space Station, for many years. In 2009, there was an accidental collision over the Arctic between a defunct Russian Kosmos communications satellite and an active Iridium communications satellite that added even more orbital debris to low Earth orbit. North Korea, faced with multiple UN sanctions, has continued developing ballistic missile capabilities under the guise of peaceful space launches. Iran continues to jam commercial satellite broadcasts in order to prevent foreign reports of domestic unrest from reaching its population. There have been reports of attempts at unauthorized access to US civil scientific satellites, e.g., Terra and Landsat in 2007 and 2008, but the source of these attempts has not been confirmed. Threats to the sustainability of space activities today come not from a single superpower but from a much more diverse group of actors whose motivations can range from deliberate to ambiguous and even accidental. The global space community is a dynamic one with new capabilities and new entrants. Europe is building its own version of GPS, titled "Galileo," and has long been a leading supplier of international commercial launch services with its Ariane family of launch vehicles. China has flown several astronauts, becoming only the third country with independent human access to space. China is constructing a space laboratory and has demonstrated unmanned rendezvous and docking operations in preparation for a fully manned space station in 2020--about the time the International Space Station may be ending its operations. …

Abstract: In recent years, both the United States and China have demonstrated their respective space weapons capabilities through two highly publicized anti-satellite missile strikes. Many commentators feared these actions might cascade into a full blow space weapons race. The outer space environment is a fragile place, and the proliferation of long-lived space weapon debris could threaten access to this global commons. Eventually, space warfare could one day have the effect of entombing the Earth in orbital debris and risking the space assets of every space-faring nation.During the summer of 2010 President Obama unveiled a space policy that called for international cooperation rejecting the unilateral approach adopted by the previous administration. This policy opens the door for a potential arms control treaty that would limit the development of space weapons. Yet, any potential agreement is still years from development. This article first examines space weapons and the international legal framework that currently governs their use. Then the article discusses the orbital debris caused by space weapons and the environmental protections within the existing law. Finally, this article argues that the theory of Mutually Assured Destruction as applied to the space environment and the international space legal framework supply enough deterrence to prevent the widespread use of space weapons without the need for additional international agreements.

Abstract: What conditions would be required elsewhere in the Universe to support life? Perhaps we can explore this possibility by studying the conditions in which Earthly extremophiles exist. We fi nd that many living forms can exist under vastly different circumstances than what we would ordinarily think would be required to support life. This chapter describes some of them, then extends these conditions to outer space to infer the possible existence of extraterrestrial life. Finally, the several decade Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, SETI, is described.

Abstract: Space law is not a "self-contained" body of law; its main source is international law One of the important consequences of that is to make states the main actor in the utilization of outer space As can be seen from the five space treaties, the original character of space law is public law that specifically governs state activities in outer space However, the privatization and commercialization of outer space that has taken place intensively in the last two decades has also been followed by privatizing space law - directing space law to be more responsive to private and commercial issues Article VI of Space Treaty allows non-governmental entities to engage in outer space activities This means that privatization and commercialization of outer space activities are legally acceptable This Article, however, does not make any limitations of which outer space activities that can be commercialized and which ones are not? If the Article will be read that all outer space activities can be commercialized, the main question is, whether it is not contrary to the basic spirit of the utilization of outer space: for the common interest of all mankind? In Addition, the Article tends to be read only in the context of liability in case of an accident and failure in outer space activities, and does not relate this with the concept of outer space as a common heritage of mankind that creates the obligation of sharing benefit This paper argues that the orientation and form of the privatization of space law should be within the basic spirit of the utilization of outer space: for the common interest of all mankind