Abstract: The contributions in this book reflect on the growing diversification of space law and is divided in two parts. The first part provides a look at the current developments in international space law and regulation and the second part investigates future perspectives of this process. It is only recently that international space law entered its third phase of development. While the first phase, between the 1960s and 1970s, was characterized by the elaboration of international conventions in the framework of the United Nations, the second phase saw the adoption of special legal regimes in the form of UN General Assembly Resolutions which were dealing with issues like direct broadcasting by satellites (DBS), remote sensing (RS) and the use of nuclear power sources (NPS) in outer space. The third and current phase received its impetus from the growing commercialization of space activities and their emerging privatization. Therefore the main characteristics of this period relate to the efforts of adapting international space law to these recent changes and of finding ways and means to reconcile State interests with commercial perspectives. This book forms a welcome addition to any collection in the field of space law and is a refreshing contribution to the discussion in the field.

Abstract: International agreements declare that no government can claim outer space or celestial bodies in outer space as its own.1 Private firms seeking to invest in potential space enterprises frequently point to these provisions as a major barrier to the future commercial development of space. Such businesses contend that the absence of property rights prevent them from obtaining external financing, hinder the protection of their investments in space, and deprive them of the assurance that they can appropriate income from their investment. In short, the lack of sovereignty in space jeopardizes the ability to make profits from private investment. This article will critique those claims, arguing that most property rights exist in space and that the lack of sovereignty does not pose current or nearterm problems for the types of business ventures likely to be developed in space. Furthermore, even in the case of future ventures, solutions based on terrestrial models would permit private companies to operate in space with reasonable reliance of the right to appropriate income from their investments. The most threatening current problem surrounding the issue of real property rights in space is in actuality not related to space entrepreneurship. It instead arises from shortsighted greed premised on misinterpretations of treaties and other applicable laws. For example, several companies have been selling land on the moon and issuing "deeds" to that land, behavior which unequivocally violates space law treaties. If the public perceives that this action is legal, as evidenced by a lack of government willingness in putting a halt to these activities, serious harm could result in the future. Regardless of this near-term problem, it is important to evaluate the true meaning of the lack of sovereignty in space in a commercial context. Following such analysis, this Article concludes that the lack of sovereignty will not deter future private space ventures to the extent commonly believed. Ownership problems raised by international agreements have solutions not requiring a major change in existing space law, but rather carefully drafted additions and amendments to the current legal regime. II. PROPERTY RIGHTS THAT EXIST IN SPACE There are actually a wide variety of space activities involving clearly delineated ownership recognized by national legal bodies throughout the world. First, anything that is launched into space is deemed to be owned by the launching party or state, including the launch vehicle, all of its associated stages and parts, and the payload that is placed into space.2 Not only do property rights attach to these objects, but the owner(s) can be held singularly and jointly liable for damage caused by these objects-if the owner is either itself the government of a launching state, or held to reimburse any international claims to be paid by such a government.3 Thus, sovereignty in some form exists for satellites and aboard space stations. Similarly, ownership of permanent structures that might be constructed on celestial bodies, including the moon, will vest in the company or state building the structure, at least to the extent it is placed "on a celestial body."4 With regard to any structure essentially made from locally available resources, there are no clear rules, and it may be valuable to establish clarity on this subject. Commercial space today is dominated by communications satellites owned by private companies or national governments. These national governments and the International Telecommunications Union ("ITU") allocate the right to use spectrum to these communications satellites.5 Although this right to use the spectrum is not exactly a traditional property right, it does grant use of a limited resource in space for business purposes for the lifetime of the particular satellite proposed to be used. Anything taken from space and returned to the earth becomes the property of the person, company, or government that performs the action, given the absence of United Nations treaty provisions prohibiting such ownership. …

Abstract: This chapter offers an electrostatic method for changing the trajectory of space probes. The method uses electrostatic force and the kinetic or rotary energy of asteroids, comet nuclei, meteorites, or other space bodies (small planets, natural planet satellites such as moons, space debris, etc.) to increase or decrease ship/probe speed by 1000 m/s or more, and to achieve any new direction in outer space. The flight possibilities of spaceships and probes are thereby increased by a factor of millions. The method includes the following main steps: finding an asteroid using a locator or telescope (or looking in a catalog) and determining its main parameters (location, mass, speed, direction, rotation); selecting the appropriate asteroid; and computing the required position of the ship with respect to the asteroid. The method also includes correcting the ship's trajectory to obtain the required position; and convergence of the ship with the asteroid. Charging the asteroid and space apparatus ball using a charge gun. Obtaining the necessary apparatus position and speed for the apparatus by flying it around the space body, and changing the charge of the apparatus and space body (asteroids). Finally, it involves discharging the space apparatus and the space body.

Abstract: [I]n a general sense, space is the ultimate frontier-and something we at Virgin have dearly wanted to do is bring space tourism one day to the masses1 I THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA OF SPACE ACTIVITIES In early October 2004, SpaceShipOne was successfully "launched" from its mother plane White Knight and went on to complete its second journey within the space of a week to an altitude of more than one hundred kilometers and back As a result, Mojave Aerospace Ventures, a company established by the vehicle's designer Burt Rutan and financier Paul Alien, claimed the ten million dollar Ansari X Prize More significantly, the success of the project demonstrated that the technology for short-term human suborbital flight had arrived, encouraging even more ambitious plans for space tourism Already a new prize-the X Prize Cup-has been announced by the promoters of the Ansari X Prize, to be offered on an annual basis in recognition of further achievements in suborbital flight Following the success of SpaceShipOne, entrepreneur Richard Branson announced an agreement with its designers for the construction of a larger commercial vehicle, which will provide Virgin Atlantic passengers with a three and a half hour journey into space There are reports that over seven thousand people have already signed on to reserve a $275,000 seat on these flights, due to commence in 20082 A poll conducted in May 2002 indicated that 19 percent of affluent American adults would be willing to pay one hundred thousand dollars for a fifteen minute suborbital flight, while 7 percent would be prepared to pay twenty million dollars for a two-week flight to an orbital space station, with that figure rising to 16 percent if the price were reduced to a "mere" five million dollars3 There can be no doubt that the prospect of commercial space tourism flights has captured widespread imagination The public perception of commercial space travel has changed from mere fantasy to a possibility and will soon be a reality-much like the evolution of air travel As a result, significant resources are being directed towards the continued advancement of Reusable Launch Vehicle ("RLV") technology, a vital element in the development of the space tourism industry Many companies are developing the capability of providing civilian space tourist flights, particularly suborbital flights One commentator has gone so far as to suggest that a traffic level of five million space passengers per year by 2030 is achievable and represents only a conservative estimate of the known demand among potential tourists His vision for an attainable model envisages a sophisticated space tourism infrastructure including over one hundred co-orbital hotels and orbital sports centres, as well as daily scheduled lunar flights to a series of lunar orbit and lunar pole hotels5 Clearly, if these forecasts are accurate, then the potential of space tourism as a significant commercial use of space will have been achieved Of course there have already been earlier orbital tourist flights In April 2001, American national Dennis Tito spent six days in the Russian section of the International Space Station ("ISS"), following extensive training at Russia's Star City complex For the first time a passenger was able to pay for the privilege of participating in a mainstream space project involving actual orbital travel, including a stay on what is currently the world's most expensive "hotel" The trip by Mr Tito was only possible following the agreement of all ISS Partners, and he spent his time "photographing the Earth and listening to opera recorded on compact discs"6 The participation of Tito had originally been opposed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ("NASA"), which argued that the presence of an "amateur" on the ISS would endanger the permanent crew However, following the success of his journey, NASA became more open to the idea of space tourists within the context of the ISS project …

Abstract: S Y N O P S I S

Abstract: It was clear from the beginning of space activities that the classical rules of international law on sovereignty, territory and delimitation cannot apply to outer space and celestial bodies. For example, one must not expect to be in a position to assert territorial sovereignty simply by planting a flag in the ground upon landing on the Moon. Similarly, in the modern world of rockets, ballistic missiles and interplanetary spacecraft, the traditional “cannon-shot” rule of potestas finitur ubi finitur armorum vis can no longer apply, regardless of whatever arbitrary limit is prescribed to be the limit of state sovereignty.

Abstract: This chapter describes some new ideas that may be useful for utilization in space. In case of recombination space jet propulsion engines, the chapter proposes collecting and concentrating charged particles from a large area using a magnetic field. Spaceships, space apparatus, and satellites would then not need fuel, and could be accelerated or fly to infinity. Using this proposed method, it is not needed to expend fuel and achieve a large acceleration of a space vehicle, or support the satellite at an altitude for an infinite amount of time. Using a space mirror it is possible to convert a huge amount of solar energy into any other form of energy. The proposed system can also be used for long-distance communication. The focused beam is directed at a far distant space apparatus and can transmit information. The set of focused mirrors may be used as an outer propulsion system for solar sail apparatus. Electronic sail may be an electrostatic solar wind sail if the central charge is positive. The solar wind electrons became concentrated around it and the mass of electrons reflects the solar light. The offered installation may also be used as a space mirror to illuminate the Earth's surface. The proposed system would enable a person to be in outer space without a spacesuit. An electrostatic space radiator works in the following way—the refrigerant is charged, and sprays from one electrode and retracts from the opposite electrode. The small drops of refrigerant have a very large surface area and emit heat very quickly.

Abstract: The mastery of outer space as the basis of integrated battleground platforms is fast becoming a reality. As the two Gulf Wars and the Kosovo military campaign made clear, space assets are decisive in battle planning and execution. The contemporary move towards weaponization of space and its intersection with international law forms the basis of this article. This article analyses the militarization and weaponization of space. It is premised on the fact that the active move to militarization and weaponization of outer space that exposes the deficit of the international law space law regime. The article highlights the fact that the international space law legal regime now has a new game in the making for which it is in many ways ill equipped to handle.

Abstract: The discussion on the delimitation, and hence definition of 'outer space' as an area, and subsidiary to that on the need or desirability to have such a delimitation and definition, harks back to the beginning of the space age. Until then, it had been quite clear that every state exercised full sovereignty over the sky above its territory and territorial waters, whilst no one felt the need for finding out how high upward such sovereignty would exactly extend. With Sputnik, for the first time the practical question arose however whether there indeed was an upper limit to airspace, and if so, where it would lie. The debate since then has mainly been a theoretical one, partly because several important space-faring nations did not consider it necessary or even appropriate to establish a legally relevant fixed boundary between 'outer space' and 'airspace' as 'geographical' areas for human activities. It is the main thrust of this paper, firstly, that this situation is changing. It is contended that in particular the recent adventures of SpaceShipOne which for a brief moment 'dipped' into outer space if one agrees that outer space begins at an altitude of 100 km bring the question of where 'outer space' begins back on the table. Consequently, wherever that question is indeed considered relevant, in the absence of any international agreement on such a delimitation or definition, viz. the need or desirability to establish one, other legally relevant means are sought to deal with the issue. Secondly, such development of alternate means has, in turn, its own indirect impact at the international legal plane. Such various developments as Australian national law referring to a lower boundary for outer space and the need to choose for certification of SpaceShipOne and crew may, in the end, through the mechanism of formation of international custom and opinio juris, lead to a customary legal rule. The current paper thus, firstly, briefly recapitulates the discussion of the last decades on delimitation and definition of outer space, secondly, refers to a few events which directly touch upon this issue, thirdly, tries to analyse the legal aspects of the solutions chosen to deal with that, including the vexing question of formation of customary law, and finally tries to draw some conclusions with respect to the overarching question: if the sky is the limit, where does it end?

Abstract: Cernan and his Apollo 17 crew completed the last moon mission of the 20th century, NASA developed the ferrylike space shuttle that has since dominated the U.S. space fleet. The shuttle was not intended to fly further than the distance required to orbit Earth, so there was no need to consider the health risks of years-long journeys into outer space. Recently, however, plans to travel beyond Earth orbit have received new life. In January 2004, President Bush announced an initiative to return people to the moon, build a base there, and eventually travel to worlds beyond, namely Mars. As a first step, NASA's current official goal is to get back to the moon no later than 2020. Sending people to Mars, however, would produce a unique set of complications for engineers and mission planners, most of which arise because the planet is so far away. William H. Paloski, a scientist at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, explains that the most probable mission would spend 6 months traveling outward; 18 months on the planet building a habitat, researching, and waiting for Mars and Earth to realign; and then 6 months homeward bound. By comparison, a moon mission would be only 2 weeks long. In terms of duration, the difference between a moon and Mars mission is comparable to that between taking a family vacation in a spaceship and moving into one. Early this year, in a document called a Bioastronautics Roadmap, NASA described the health risks of long-duration space travel. At the top of the list of risks is cosmic radiation. To protect astronauts from atomic nuclei that zip around the universe with high energy, some engineers propose deploying a giant magnetic field to surround the ship and deflect the radiation. Biomedical researchers are already making progress on other items on NASA's risk list. Microgravity atrophies muscles and depletes bone mass. A noisy spaceship and unnatural lighting disrupt sleep-wake cycles. And because there will be only limited medical expertise and equipment on board, an accident or illness, if serious, could abort a mission. Solutions to these problems would help make a Mars mission a go.

Abstract: Real-time simulation of satellite and outer space scene had been found great application in aviation and spaceflight,military affairs and national defenceIn this paper,a new method to render dynamic outer space scene was proposedBy integrating the knowledge of Computer Graphics and Astronomy,we first modelled the scene of outer space based on astronomical star catalogueThen we calculated the tracks of satellites,stars and planetsAnd the realistic synthesis between satellites and outer space background was achievedFinally by adapting the accelerated rendering techniques of scene,real-time dynamic outer space scene and interactive virtual walkthrough are successfully realized

Abstract: Present, rockets are used to change the trajectory of space ships and probes. Sometimes space probes use th e gravity field of a planet. T here are only nine planets in our Solar System, all separated by great distances. However, t here are tens of mill ions of asteroids . This paper offers a revolutionary method for changing the t rajectory of space probes. The method uses electrostatic force and the kinetic or rotary energy of asteroids, comet nuclei, meteorites or other space bodies (small planets, natural planet satellites such a moons , spa ce debris, etc.) to increase or decrease ship / probe speed by 1000 m/sec or more and to achieve any ne w direction in outer space. Th e flight possibilities of space ships and probes are thereby increased by a factor of millions.

Abstract: The Outer Space Act 1986 (OSA) is the legal basis for the regulation of activities in outer space (including the launch and operation of space objects) carried out by persons connected with the United Kingdom. The Act confers licensing and other powers on the Secretary of State acting through the British National Space Centre (BNSC). The Act ensures compliance with UK obligations under the international conventions covering the use of outer space. Under the legislation of the OSA, the Secretary of State shall not grant a licence unless he is satisfied that the activities authorised by the licence will not jeopardise public health or the safety of persons or property, will be consistent with the international obligations of the United Kingdom, and will not impair the national security of the United Kingdom. Further the Secretary of State requires the licensee to conduct his operations in such a way as to prevent the contamination of outer space or adverse changes in the environment of the Earth, and to avoid interference with activities of others in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space. In the context of space debris mitigation, we consider the physical contamination of the orbital environment and potential physical interference with operational spacecraft. This paper outlines both the philosophical approach adopted in interpreting the requirements of the outer space treaties and translating these into evaluation criteria, and practical experience of assessing compliance of licence applicants with the emerging standards, guidelines and codes for space debris mitigation. The documentation and software tools developed to assist in performing these assessments are introduced, and the modelling and data approaches explained.

Abstract: : The United States has been the world leader in space for decades and is second to none in the development of space technology and its uses for industrial, civil, military, and intelligence operations. However, the rest of the world is increasing its reliance on space applications such as navigation, communications, weather prediction, agriculture, and urban planning. The list of how space technology contributes to the world economy grows almost daily. Space globalization is racing faster than U.S. National Security Strategy can keep up. The U.S. Strategy calls for the military to develop capabilities to protect U.S. assets in outer space. This is to ensure the use of space assets during time of conflict. Potential adversaries understand the vulnerabilities. America must deny the enemy use of space if called upon to do so and ensure its ability to operate freely. Space Control actions will increasingly encounter strategic issues as adversaries use third party space assets to enhance their military and intelligence operations. What are the implications for military and national security planners when third party space assets and services are interwoven into an adversary's capabilities? Will current U.S. space policy meet the needs of the nation in an era of space globalization? To answer these questions this paper will review the national and military policies on space. It will also summarize the effects of space globalization, to include the world's increasing reliance on civilian space assets. Finally, a strategic analysis of space control policies and doctrine will determine if there is a sound space strategy in the face of globalization and if not, suggest recommendations for possible action.

Abstract: : The history of Space law is one that "has developed as required to resolve the problems of the time. Since Space activities have been predominately governmental activities to date, most Space law is public law," (Collins, 1992, pg. 1). This paper addresses policy and legal issues that pertain to seabased Space launches. Sea-based Space launch is a relatively new endeavor that has not previously been subject to specific policy or law. Even so, many policy issues exist which directly relate to this new venture, to include policies relating to the commercialization of Space, policies deriving from the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty (OST), policies mandated through the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) launch licensing requirements and policies implementing provisions of the Liability Convention. The main focus of this article will be to examine each of these areas on its own merits, but such an examination would be fruitless without a foundational understanding of the market within which Sea Launch exists. Once this foundation has been laid, the policies and international law governing Sea Launch will have the context necessary to be understandable.

Abstract: The invention relates to a kind of space wave engine which is a widely used actuating device that is employing on land, in the sea and space's transporting It is invented according to space potential energy principle of mass Inner potential energy principle unifies mass gravity, electromagnetic force and nuclear force according to the inertial interaction phrase of center of mass and center of field It deems electromagnetic wave, mass wave and inertia wave all belong to space wave On this basis, it utilizes inner impetus of motor system and makes vibrator resonance vibration traverse It can compound inertia force wave inside the vibrator and generate inner space impetus, therefore, it can get rid of dependence on land, sea, space and other matter like the traditional engine The actuating device can work on land, above sea (under sea), atmosphere and outer space

Abstract: The discussion on the delimitation, and hence definition of 'outer space' as an area, and subsidiary to that on the need or desirability to have such a delimitation and definition, harks back to the beginning of the space age. Until then, it had been quite clear that every state exercised full sovereignty over the sky above its territory and territorial waters, whilst no one felt the need for finding out how high upward such sovereignty would exactly extend. With Sputnik, for the first time the practical question arose however whether there indeed was an upper limit to airspace, and if so, where it would lie. The debate since then has mainly been a theoretical one, partly because several important space-faring nations did not consider it necessary or even appropriate to establish a legally relevant fixed boundary between 'outer space' and 'airspace' as 'geographical' areas for human activities. It is the main thrust of this paper, firstly, that this situation is changing. It is contended that in particular the recent adventures of SpaceShipOne which for a brief moment 'dipped' into outer space - if one agrees that outer space begins at an altitude of 100 km bring the question of where 'outer space' begins back on the table. Consequently, wherever that question is indeed considered relevant, in the absence of any international agreement on such a delimitation or definition, viz. the need or desirability to establish one, other legally relevant means are sought to deal with the issue. Secondly, such development of alternate means has, in turn, its own indirect impact at the international legal plane. Such various developments as Australian national law referring to a lower boundary for outer space and the need to choose for certification of SpaceShipOne and crew may, in the end, through the mechanism of formation of international custom and opinio juris, lead to a customary legal rule. The current paper thus, firstly, briefly recapitulates the discussion of the last decades on delimitation and definition of outer space, secondly, refers to a few events which directly touch upon this issue, thirdly, tries to analyse the legal aspects of the solutions chosen to deal with that, including the vexing question of formation of customary law, and finally tries to draw some conclusions with respect to the overarching question: if the sky is the limit, where does it end?