Abstract: ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABBREVIATIONS Introduction: Opium's History in China Timothy Brook and Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi PART ONE * THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 1. Opium for China: The British Connection Gregory Blue 2. From Peril to Profit: Opium in Late-Edo to Meiji Eyes Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi PART TWO * DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION 3* Drugs, Taxes, and Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia Carl A. Trocki 4* The Hong Kong Opium Revenue, 1845-1885 Christopher Munn 5* Opium in Xinjiang and Beyond David Bello 6. Drug Operations by Resident japanese in Tianjin Motohiro Kobayashi 7* Opium/Leisure/Shanghai: Urban Economies of Consumption Alexander Des Forges PART THREE * CONTROL AND RESISTANCE 8. Opium and Modern Chinese State-Making R. Bin Wong 9* Opium and the State in Late-Qing Sichuan judith Wyman 10. Poppies, Patriotism, and the Public Sphere: Nationalism and State Leadership in the Anti-Opium Crusade in Fujian, 1906-1916 Joyce A. Madanry 1 1. The National Anti-Opium Association and the Guomindang State, 1924-1937 Edward R. Slack Jr. 12. Opium Control versus Opium Suppression: The Origins of the 1935 Six-Year Plan to Eliminate Opium and Drugs Alan Baumler 13. The Responses of Opium Growers to Eradication Campaigns and the Poppy Tax, 1907-1949 Lucien Bianco PART FOUR * CRISIS AND RESOLUTION 14. Opium and Collaboration in Central China, 1938-1940 Timothy Brook 15. An Opium Tug-of-War: Japan versus the Wang Jingwei Regime Motohiro Kobayashi 16. Resistance to Opium as a Social Evil in Wartime China Mark S. Eykholt 17. Nationalism, Identity, and State-Building:The Antidrug Crusade in the People's Republic, 1949-1952 Zhou Yongming BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTRIBUTORS INDEX

Abstract: The alkaloid-rich latex of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum L., is valued as a source of pharmaceuticals including thebaine, codeine, and morphine, but is also harvested for heroin production. The poppy laticifer system develops through the gradual disappearance of the common walls between differentiating laticifer elements throughout the plant. Gene homologues for cell-wall-degrading enzymes were found during random sequencing of an opium poppy latex cDNA library. RNA gel blot analysis of cellulase, polygalacturonase beta-subunit, 1,3-beta-glucanase, and xyloglucan endotransglycosylase homologues showed their expression was not limited to laticifers. In contrast, poppy gene homologues to pectin methylesterase (PME), pectin acetylesterase (PAE) and pectate lyase (PL) where all highly expressed and latex-specific. Enzyme assays confirmed the presence of PME, PAE, and PL activities in latex serum. The abundance of transcripts encoding pectin-degrading enzymes in latex suggests that these enzymes may play an important role in laticifer development.

Abstract: Using a self-reported questionnaire, 213 Shiraz University students were surveyed about their attitudes towards drug use (cigarettes, alcohol, opium, heroin, cannabis) and their use of drugs (ever or during the 6 months prior to the study). About 52% had smoked cigarettes, 25% had tried alcohol, 21% opium and 12% cannabis; only one student had used heroin. Those who had used drugs obtained them from and used them with friends or acquaintances. The majority of students wanted more information on drugs, and considered television and films the best medium for providing information. Drug use among Shiraz University students is still lower than that reported in the West (except opium). Drug prevention programmes relevant to Iranian culture should be devised.

Abstract: The follow-up to the widely praised Opium, In The Arms of Morpheus is the shocking story of how a simple but bewitching substance, touted as a miracle drug, enslaved unwitting generations of 19th century writers, artists and ordinary citizens. Extracted from opium, the sap of the poppy, this popular drug was welcomed into the homes of rich and poor alike, in the guise of medicinal uses in the form of laudanum and opium elixirs, and as pure, undisguised morphine. Laudanum contained opium, saffron, cinnamon and alcohol. In the spirit of 19th century progress, other opium concoctions were created and a whole industry in quackery erupted. In both Britain and North America, opium was mixed with everything imaginable: mercury, hashish, cayenne pepper, ether, chloroform, belladonna and whisky, sherry, wine and brandy.

Abstract: We study a period of Javanese history when the consumption of opium was legal, but the supply of it was undergoing substantial institutional transformation Through most of the nineteenth century the opium trade was organized into a system of “revenue farms,” which were privately owned local monopolies that bought raw opium from the government, refined it, and sold it to consumers After 1893 this system was replaced by a government monopoly, the so-called opium regie, which controlled importation, refining, and retailing Our main conclusion is that this change in policy substantially reduced opium consumption

Abstract: Aims : The strict measures used to prohibit the sale and use of unlawful substances has not changed the increasing trend of substance use in Iran. The aim of this study is to assess the rate of substance use among Iranian healthcare students. Participants : Students (346) were selected randomly; 43.9% were females and 56.1% were males. Measurements : A confidential questionnaire was distributed, completed by the students and collected in the same session. Findings : Of the participants, 34.7% admitted the use of substances now or in the past: cigarettes (28%) were the most frequently used substance. The other substances used were: alcohol (15%), opium (8.4%), cannabis (4.6%), heroin (0.9%) and LSD (0.6%). Only 6.9% of the students were still using substances regularly: cigarettes (5.5%), alcohol (1.7%), opium (1.4%), cannabis (1.2%), heroin (0.3%) and LSD (0.3%). Some had used or were using more than one substance. Conclusions : Use of substance was significantly related to gender (50% of males and 15.2% ...

Abstract: The Chinese struggle to create a modern nation was tied closely to the opium trade. Throughout much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, China's economy, politics, and society were steeped in opium and opium money. All of China's modern governments took the crusade to liberate the nation from this "plague" as one of their essential tasks. However, the opium problem proved to be more complex than many had imagined. There was much disagreement over both the nature of the problem and the solution. Was opium a relatively harmless substance--only a danger to the weak-willed--or a poison that would inevitably destroy the nation? How could the state control this slippery substance and the people who used it? These were more than abstract questions, as all Chinese states profited from the opium trade and most Chinese either used the substance or knew people who did.By presenting a selection of original source readings from the Qing dynasty, the Republic, and the Communist government, this book makes comprehensible the many debates among Chinese involving opium in the modern period. The readings are drawn from a variety of sources including memoirs, diplomatic reports, and journals. It will be of particular interest to students of modern China.Alan Baumler is Assistant Professor of History, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.

Abstract: On the basis of a new database of stock and commodity prices, along with measures of government revenues, commodity exports and immigration, the article assesses the impact of the opium trade on the economies of colonial Malaya, the Netherlands Indies and China from 1873 to 1911. Stock returns for a few Malayan industries related to international trade are significantly correlated with opium price changes, as are prices for labour-intensive, Chinese-dominated export commodities such as tin and gambier. However, opium price changes explain, at most, only a small fraction of the behaviour of stock and commodity prices. On balance, stock and commodity markets ascribed only secondary importance to ups and downs in the opium trade as measured by the price of the drug.

Abstract: It has long been axiomatic among historians of late imperial and early Republican China that opium was a plague on the Chinese people-sapping their willpower and stamina, weakening the military, draining the Qing treasury while padding the coffers of the colonial Indian government, and reinforcing China's international image as an empire in decline. The settlements with Great Britain following the Opium War of 1839-1842 and the Arrow War of 1858-1860 ultimately compelled China to drop its own long-standing legal restrictions against the importation of foreign opium and sparked the growth of a lucrative domestic opium economy that eventually extended throughout the Qing empire.' By the turn of the twentieth century, opium was perceived as having caused widespread social dysfunction, and the drug served as a powerful metaphor for China's political somnambulism in the age of Western imperialism. In short, China had developed a serious opium problem-and along with it, a public

Abstract: This paper focuses on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, one of the localities in the world where the process of globalisation is most advanced, in order to examine the relationship between globalisation and the risk of illicit drug problems. It considers the impact of globalisation on both the supply side and the demand side of the illicit drugs market in Hong Kong. It is argued that, historically, the trade in dependence-producing substances like tobacco and opium was central to the creation of a world market; in particular, the nineteenth-century drive to bring Southeast Asia into a system of world trade led to the production and marketing of opium on an organised commercial basis, triggering the first of the modern drug 'epidemics'. Hong Kong, ceded to the British following the first Opium War, was central to this project, and to the creation of the financial and transport infrastructure needed to support large-scale opium trading. The British promoted the consumption of opium withi...

Abstract: Within a highly volatile socio-economic, political and legal environment, opium poppy has become an integral part of livelihood strategies in many rural communities in Afghanistan. Over the past decade Afghanistan has become the world's leading producer of opium. The easy availability of both opium and heroin, as well as a wide range of pharmaceutical drugs, coupled with an impoverished population traumatized by 20 years of war and conflict, has led to an increase in drug problems both in Afghanistan and refugee communities in neighbouring countries. This overview of the supply of, and demand for, drugs in Afghanistan provides insights into the complexities of drug production and consumption within the broader context of development issues and objectives.

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Abstract: Dir district' is 5,280 square kilometres in area and part of the Malakand division of Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province, lying along the Afghanistan border between Chitral and Peshawar. Almost all of it lies in the valley of the Panjkora which rises high in the Hindu Kush at Lat. 35.45 and joins the Swat River near Chakdarra, where the district is usually entered, at Lat. 34.40. Apart from the tehsils of Adenzai round Chakdarra and Munda in the south-west, Dir is rugged and mountainous with peaks rising to 16,000 feet in the north-east and to 10,000 ft. along the watersheds with Swat to the east and Afghanistan to the west. The only motor road to Chitral reaches 10,234 ft. at the Lowarai pass. Timergara, however, the district headquarters, lies at only 2,700 ft, twice the altitude of Peshawar but much lower than the traditional and eponymous capital of Dir at the foot of the Lowarai. Except for them and a number of rapidly growing bazaar towns along the main roads the population is rural, scattered in more than 1200 villages over the plains of Adenzai and Munda and the deep narrow valleys of the Panjkora and its tributaries. Of these the largest are Barawal, Usherai, Nihag, Karo and Toormang. Upper Dir receives over 1,000 mm of rain annually and between 4,000 and 10,000 ft. much of it is still forested; deodar and other conifers are dominant at the higher altitudes, and deciduous species including oak, wild olive and walnut proliferate lower down. Increasing population pressure and the insatiable demand for firewood locally and for timber throughout Pakistan has reduced tree cover drastically. Much cleared forest has become seriously degraded through uncontrolled grazing and conversion to arable. Unfortunately, unless new farmland is laboriously terraced and irrigated the thin soils soon erode and lose fertility. Even as rough pasture such steep slopes are of little value, since high rates of evapotranspiration and unshaded capped soils inhibit the maintenance of grass and shrub cover. Although there is still room to expand summer cultivation of maize and potato above the 7,000 ft. contour where winter cropping ceases, little remains below it for either winter or summer crops. Dir's population

Abstract: An experiment was conducted during 1995-96 to 1998-99 to evaluate 10 varieties for stability parameters for opium yield, seed yield and morphine content in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.). The varieties showed significant differences for all the traits. Joint regression analysis indicated that both predictable and unpredictable components contributed significantly towards the difference in stability of genotypes. However, larger variation in regression coefficients revealed that genotypes had different degree of environmental response. Genotypes studied did not show uniform stability (s 2 di ) and response (linear) for all the characters. The genotypes 'NBRI 9', 'NBRI 10' and 'BROP 1' were more stable and responsive than other over environment for all 3 traits. The mean performance was found associated with linear (S 2 di ) component with mean (X) and regression (bi) was noticed.

Abstract: Carl A. Trocki's 1999 publication Opium, empire and the global political economy (London: Routledge) is in many ways an important work. His thesis that ‘Without opium there would have been no empire’ is controversial. However, the purpose of this research note is not to refute Trocki's thesis, or indeed to present a new one, but rather to examine Trocki's use of primary documentation, where some difficulties emerge. Not only are some of his East India Company (EIC) documents quoted incorrectly or used out of context, but a limited further study of the same documents sheds some doubt on Trocki's interpretation of the opium trade. Some of the papers quoted even offer intriguing insights into the nature of the EIC's opium monopoly. The issue of opium smuggling (and illicit opium production) within India was ignored by Trocki, although one of his main documents discusses the issue at length. Concern over opium smuggling within India (and by Indians) and its inevitability constituted the main moral basis of the EIC opium monopoly.

Abstract: Through conventional or special treatment, the puffer liver oil is prepared into oral liquid, injecta and other dosage forms of medicine or reinforced food and nutritious tonic, which may be used in giving up the dependence of drug addict to heroin, morphine, opium, dolantin and other drug.

Abstract: tems, including Islamic notions of respectability. Ross implicitly criticizes the dualist tack taken by many writers who see cultural colonialism as a form of dialectic.2 Ross argues, in contrast, that many “respectable” members of marginalized communities were opposing the efforts of their enemies to degrade them, rather than acquiescing in cultural colonialism. His work suggests that one can only understand the complex dynamics of respectability by considering the existence of multiple interlocutors and the underlying material politics that determined the interpretation of the performance of respectability. But Ross may underestimate the difacult issue of self-denigration, particularly among Khoikhoi people whose societies were in a state of collapse. The book foregrounds the voices of the past; Ross zestfully uses much rich anecdotal evidence. Another strength is Ross’ use of visual sources, as well as written records of public ceremonies designed to have a visual impact. Ross might have been less ascetic in his deliberate avoidance of model building. More discussion of the distinction between “status” and “respectability,” for example, as well as a more pointed dissection of the terms “nation” and “nationalism,” would have been welcome. These omissions, however, are clearly the deliberate product of humanist narrative choices, emphasizing the muddle of lived experience. Overall this is a humane, insightful and immensely knowledgeable book that also manages to be moving in its account of the cruelties of rank and the struggles of many to escape, transcend, or exploit status and respectability.

Abstract: from remarks on the Greco-Roman and Semitic imagination of subjection to a sustained examination of Malay/Indonesian, Thai, Khmer, Burmese and Vietnamese behaviour towards war captives, European and municipal slaves, royal bondsmen, and concubinage, as well as the nineteenth century slave trade and its abolition. The third launches forth into the controversy about the moment when European dominion ``became . . . the major problem for Southeast Asia'', distinguishing the ``borrowers'' ± who sought a moral-religious way out of the impasse to which, in the late nineteenth century, they had been reduced ± and the ``revitalizers'', setting store by ``tricks learnt from the west''. En route are canvassed Islamic resistance and soteriology; millenarianism; administrative reform; and the impact of Marxism and other secular creeds. Other topics discussed include: Armenian and Danish residents and merchants in sixteenth century Siam; the use of Arabic and Malay as regional creoles, the latter even unto Mindanao and the Visayas; Portuguese dealings with the Ryukyus and with the Chinese-mestizo diaspora; cannon founding overseen by Turkish gunsmiths imported to the Aceh sultanate; late religious change in South Sulawesi; ``The Rise and Fall of Sino-Javanese Shipping'' (which chapter proves, characteristically, to be anything but dull or narrow in conspectus); the ``intense interaction between Chinese and Javanese technology and enterprise in the period between 1290 and 1450'' that engendered a dynamic pasisir culture; the reasons why such small states as Korea, Burma, Siam, Vietnam, and Laos recoiled into isolation, and why China, for these countries, and Europeans and Arabs for the Malay world, functioned both as analogues and antipodes. It remains to point out that the omission of an index to what is otherwise a most handsomely produced book (embellished with useful maps and furnished with an up-to-date bibliography) is nothing short of actionable. D. M. Roskies

Abstract: Heroin is prepared by treating morphine with acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride. It is a simple reaction and the yields are generally quantitative. Nowadays the whole process is illegal. Morphine is the major alkaloid present in the opium poppy. Opium is manufactured illicitly then morphine is extracted from it in clandestine laboratories. Numerous studies were carried out on heroin to investigate its rate of hydrolysis. It has been shown that heroin is rapidly deacylated in aqueous solution at alkaline or acidic pH to form 6-acethylmorphine and finally, to morphine. Heroin also rapidly decomposes in biological medium yielding first 6-acetylmorphine and then morphine. Hydrolysis can be performed in blood and in tissue homogenates. Heroin can be administered by several routes. Smoking and intravenous administration are preferred, but intranasal, intramuscular and subcutaneous administration are also common. Recently, there has been a shift in heroin use patterns from injection to sniffing and smoking. Sharing of the injection equipment can result in several severe infectious diseases, such as AIDS, hepatitis B and C. Soon after administration, heroin metabolizes to 6-acetylmorphine and morphine. Most of the pharmacological activities of heroin are due to these active metabolites. Therefore, knowledge of distribution of 6-acetylmorphine and morphine is essential to understand pharmacological properties of heroin. Heroin, which is relatively nonpolar compound compared with morphine, has high lipid solubility facilitating rapid absorption from the bloodstream and passage through the blood-brain barrier. When heroin is administered by intravenously the drug takes 10 s to reach the brain i.e. pharmacological effects appear quickly.

Abstract: 1783–1841 German apothecary who isolated morphine from opium. Keywords: morphine; opium; alkaloids; Serturner

Abstract: Traitors formed a special group of people in the Opium Wars who either got information for invaders or became the vanguard of aggressor troops.This paper gives an account of the compositon of traitors and the counter measures of the government in the Qing Dynasty.

Abstract: Prehistoric man recognised the medicinal value of various plant extracts containing active drugs such as opium, cocaine and digitalis thousands of years ago [1]. Effective drugs were, however, sparse until this century despite the advances of civilisation and science. Many ineffective remedies survived, the early physicians and patients being deluded by the self-limiting nature of many diseases and the “placebo effect”. Progress was often precipitated by the desperation and deprivation of war. The first true chemotherapeutic agent, Salvarsan, for use against syphilis, was synthesised by Ehrlich as recently as 1909. In the 1920s only six drugs, either singly or in combination, made up 60% of all British prescriptions [2].

Abstract: Narcotic drugs generally refer to serious and habitual hidden rash such as opium, heroin, methyphetamin, nabinol, cocaine, and so forth. At present, narcotic drugs are spread unchecked and are causing a big social problem. So many countries and narcotists are making every effort to set up a barricade against narcotic drugs. And there is a limit suitable treatment for them. Thus Tuo Yin Tang Jiang is developed. As indicated by Chinese letters, Tuo Yin Tang Jiang(TYTJ) is a crude drug. It is a traditional chinese medicine developed by the study done from June in 1998 to June in 1999 that Hubeisheng was entrusted with by People's Republic of China. This study is a treatise on etiology and syntomatology of narcotism. TYTJ is a medicine which is in accord with Pharmacopeia of the People's Republic of China1) in order to remove from the body the toxic materials resulting from narcotic drugs such as opium and heroin. According to the standard diagnosis on narcotism, 105 cases are studied and treated at the Rehabilitation Center attached to Enshi Autonomous Region Hospital in Hubeisheng. 105 cases are divided into 2 groups by double-blind method. One is the experimental group which has 56 cases. The other is the control group which has 49 ones. 13 cases among 105 cases are addicted by intravenously injections. 9 cases are by oral takings. It took 10 days for this experiment to be performed. Two groups didn't show a striking individual variation based on the age, gender, period of taking drugs, withdrawal symptoms, complication, and state of health. The experimental group had a higher effect of treatment than the control group had. TYTJ treats diseases effectively and has no side effect, irrespective of the serious or slight addiction to opium and morphine.