Abstract: Climate strength was conceptualized within D. Chan's (1998) discussion of compositional models and the concept of culture strength from the organizational culture literature. Climate strength was operationalized in terms of within-group variability in climate perceptions-the less within-group variability, the stronger the climate. The authors studied climate strength in the context of research linking employee service climate perceptions to customer satisfaction. The hypothesis was tested that climate strength moderates the relationship between employee perceptions of service climate and customer satisfaction experiences. Partial support for the hypothesis was reported in both a concurrent and predictive (3-year) test across 118 branches of a bank. In the predictive study only the interaction of climate and climate strength predicted customer satisfaction. Implications for future research on climate and climate strength are discussed.

Abstract: Our concept of nine risk evaluation criteria, six risk classes, a decision tree, and three management categories was developed to improve the effectiveness, efficiency, and political feasibility of risk management procedures. The main task of risk evaluation and management is to develop adequate tools for dealing with the problems of complexity, uncertainty. and ambiguity. Based on the characteristics of different risk types and these three major problems, we distinguished three types of management--risk-based, precaution-based, and discourse-based strategies. The risk-based strategy--is the common solution to risk problems. Once the probabilities and their corresponding damage potentials are calculated, risk managers are required to set priorities according to the severity of the risk, which may be operationalized as a linear combination of damage and probability or as a weighted combination thereof. Within our new risk classification, the two central components have been augmented with other physical and social criteria that still demand risk-based strategies as long as uncertainty is low and ambiguity absent. Risk-based strategies are best solutions to problems of complexity and some components of uncertainty, for example, variation among individuals. If the two most important risk criteria, probability of occurrence and extent of damage, are relatively well known and little uncertainty is left, the traditional risk-based approach seems reasonable. If uncertainty plays a large role, in particular, indeterminacy or lack of knowledge, the risk-based approach becomes counterproductive. Judging the relative severity of risks on the basis of uncertain parameters does not make much sense. Under these circumstances, management strategies belonging to the precautionary management style are required. The precautionary approach has been the basis for much of the European environmental and health protection legislation and regulation. Our own approach to risk management has been guided by the proposition that any conceptualization of the precautionary principle should be (1) in line with established methods of scientific risk assessments, (2) consistent and discriminatory (avoiding arbitrary results) when it comes to prioritization, and (3) at the same time, specific with respect to precautionary measures, such as ALARA or BACT, or the strategy of containing risks in time and space. This suggestion does, however, entail a major problem: looking only to the uncertainties does not provide risk managers with a clue about where to set priorities for risk reduction. Risks vary in their degree of remaining uncertainties. How can one judge the severity of a situation when the potential damage and its probability are unknown or contested? In this dilemma, we advise risk managers to use additional criteria of hazardousness, such as "ubiquity versibility," and "pervasiveness over time," as proxies for judging severity. Our approach also distinguishes clearly between uncertainty and ambiguity. Uncertainty refers to a situation of being unclear about factual statements; ambiguity to a situation of contested views about the desirability or severity of a given hazard. Uncertainty can be resolved in principle by more cognitive advances (with the exception of indeterminacy). ambiguity only by discourse. Discursive procedures include legal deliberations as well as novel participatory approaches. In addition, discursive methods of planning and conflict resolution can be used. If ambiguities are associated with a risk problem, it is not enough to demonstrate that risk regulators are open to public concerns and address the issues that many people wish them to take care ot The process of risk evaluation itself needs to be open to public input and new forms of deliberation. We have recommended a tested set of deliberative processes that are, at least in principle, capable of resolving ambiguities in risk debates (for a review, see Renn, Webler, & Wiedemaun. 1995). Deliberative processes are needed, however, for ail three types of management. Risk-based management relies on epistemiological, uncertainty-based management on reflective, and discourse-based management on participatory discourse forms. These three types of discourse could be labeled as an analytic-deliberative procedure for risk evaluation and management. We see the advantage of a deliberative style of regulation and management in a dynamic balance between procedure and outcome. Procedure should not have priority over the outcome; outcome should not have priority over the procedure. An intelligent combination of both can elaborate the required prerequisites of democratic deliberation and its substantial outcomes to enhance the legitimacy of political decisions (Guttman & Thompson, 1996; Bohman, 1997. 1998).

Abstract: We propose moving leadership theory and research to another level—one that recognizes that current leadership scholarship is not invalid but incomplete. Such scholarship needs to be looked at in different ways and with various approaches relevant for different circumstances. Macro views need increasing recognition, but to supplement rather than replace currently emphasized meso/micro perspectives. Also, human agency is not to be replaced with mechanistic prescription, but leadership scholars are in a position to contribute to the strategy and organization theory research that currently minimizes leader influence. This philosophy is illustrated through the interplay of leadership with the four contexts of: stability, crisis, dynamic equilibrium, and edge of chaos; the latter operationalized through a complexity theory/dynamic systems perspective. We discuss each context and leadership, in terms of patterning of attention and network leadership, and conclude with a brief measurement treatment. These contexts encourage researchers to reconsider temporality, causal relations, units of analysis, and dependent variables consistent with the social construction of human agency within the given context, to develop more robust models and leadership understanding.

Abstract: We develop a reconceptualization and operationalization of psychic distance that broadens the concept. We then empirically test this operationalization and investigate the relationship between psychic distance and organizational performance. Our results suggest that psychic distance, as a summary construct, explains a significant proportion of the variance in financial performance and strategic effectiveness. However, disaggregation of the construct substantially increases its explanatory power. The results also support a psychic distance paradox, where psychic distance has a positive relationship with organizational performance.

Abstract: Key Words: affect, ambivalence, conflict, intergenerational relations, solidarity, theory. Ambivalence is an apt term to describe the contradictions we experience in our intimate social relationships. We can feel it: the paradox between closeness and distance, the push and pull between intimacy and setting boundaries. Ambivalence is a phenomenological reality, a universal human experience, a reflection of the dilemmas we face in close relationships. That ambivalent feelings characterize family interactions will be no surprise to family therapists and psychotherapists because much of their practice involves helping people disentangle difficulties in close-but-distant intimate relationships. Nor should the notion of ambivalence be a surprise to family researchers because they examine often conflicting data concerning the antecedents and consequences of family processes on some outcome. But does the concept of intergenerational ambivalence, proposed initially by Luscher and Pillemer (1998) and now expanded by Connidis and McMullin, provide something significantly new-- a more useful way to conceptualize and theorize family relationships than previous conceptualizations have achieved? If so, how should the concept of ambivalence be refined and operationalized in order to provide a better understanding of family relationships? How does it relate to other, more established, concepts such as what has become known as the intergenerational solidarity paradigm (Lowenstein, Katz, Prilutzky, & Hassoen, 2001)? These are some of the questions raised by Connidis and McMullin in their examination of "Sociological ambivalence and family ties." These are theoretical issues important to examine. We congratulate Journal of Marriage and Family in highlighting this theoretical discussion for public debate. We congratulate Connidis and McMullin for their efforts to address the ambiguities of the intergenerational ambivalence concept and to strengthen its utility. Such explication moves the debate forward and will advance the building of theory in family research. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE AMBIVALENCE CONCEPT What is ambivalence in intergenerational relationships? Luscher and Pillemer (1998) delineate two types: (a) sociological or structural ambivalence, which stems from an individual's location in the social structure, and (b) psychological or individual ambivalence, which refers to the feelings or sentiments experienced by individuals when faced with structural ambivalence. Their general definition of ambivalence, ". . . contradictions in relationships between parents and adult offspring that cannot be reconciled" (LOscher & Pillemer, p. 416), incorporates both types. Connidis and McMullin applaud Lischer and Pillemer for going beyond previous conceptualizations of intergenerational relations that have been typified as wholly harmonious or wholly conflictual. However, they suggest that Luscher and Pillemer do not go far enough. Drawing on themes from critical theory (a rubric incorporating themes from Marxism, feminism, and the Frankfurt school), Connidis and McMullin argue that ambivalence must be reconceptualized as "socially structured contradictions made manifest in interaction" (p. 565). They assert that their concept of structured ambivalence is distinct from Uscher and Pillemer's structural or sociological ambivalence. The Connidis and McMullin reconceptualization of ambivalence as socially structured emphasizes that: (a) ambivalence is a feature of structured sets of social relationships within which certain groups are privileged, (b) individuals exercise agency (to the extent possible) when dealing with ambivalence, (c) the negotiation of ambivalence takes place through social interaction, and (d) conflict is an inevitable feature of interpersonal relationships, including intergenerational relationships. Connidis and McMullin's construct of structured ambivalence adds to our understanding of family relationships. …

Abstract: The article discusses theoretical issues regarding the generalization of positive intergroup contact. It contrasts the models of Brewer and Miller (1984), Hewstone and Brown (1986), and Gaertner and Dovidio (2000). It elaborates the conceptual meaning of key concepts: intergroup salience, typicality of an outgroup member, decategorization, differentiation, and personalization. In particular, the article argues for the conceptual independence of differentiation (individuation) among social category members and personalized interaction (self-disclosure and self/other comparison) with category members. A hypothetical experiment is presented to illustrate the independent operationalization of the two constructs. Stronger benefits are expected for the latter. Whereas the benefits of differentiation primarily rest on cognitive effects, personalization also has motivational consequences: justifying one’s self-disclosure and inducing increased trust.

Abstract: Despite the growing interest in supply chain management (SCM), our understanding of the subject issue is still limited, largely due to inadequate attention being placed to theory building. To address this problem, this paper highlights some major weaknesses of the extant literature with respect to the conceptualization, operationalization, and modelling of SCM, identifies potential causes underlying these shortcomings, and gives some recommendations to improve theory development in this area. Specifically, it demonstrates that (1) the SCM construct has been perceived narrowly from the perspective of a particular traditional function of a firm; (2) the construct validity is threatened due to inadequate pre-operational explication of the content domain, among other operationalization problems; and (3) the dominant conceptual SCM models focus mainly on the practices-performance relationship, overlooking the context-practices relationship. A greater advance in theory development is possible if researchers ado...

Abstract: This article describes a theoretically-grounded framework of cultural dimensions conceptualized and operationalized at the individual level of analysis, based on the work of anthropologists Kluckho...

Abstract: Elite interviews have long been a staple of state politics research. Improved information technology facilitates the use of elite interviews, but also underscores the need for attending to their design, operationalization, and analysis. This essay provides a framework for developing, conducting, and interpreting elite interviews, and suggests means to enhance the validity and reliability of findings by considering instrumentation, sampling, data collection, and transcript analysis.

Abstract: This paper examines the concept of ‘learning careers’ as a way of understanding the processes through which adults return to education. It particularly considers the ways in which adults from groups who are at risk of social exclusion develop identities that enable them to engage with learning. The concept of learning careers is derived from symbolic interactionist theory, with its origins in the work of the Chicago School. To illuminate the concept of learning career, the paper presents qualitative data produced in a research study set in Scotland in which the processes that underpinned participation and non-participation in further education (FE) colleges were explored. FE colleges constitute spaces that occupy a specific location in relation to the social milieux inhabited by many working-class adults, so that engaging in learning involves a degree of socio-cultural boundary-crossing. The paper draws on theories of the social space that derive ultimately from attempts to operationalize Bourdieu's conce...

Abstract: George Engel proposed the biopsychosocial model in what soon became a landmark event for understanding medicine as a science.1,2* The model prompted a revolution in medical thinking by providing an argument and rationale that better linked medicine to science. Following the revolution in physics at the turn of the last century, science gradually moved away from previous linear, cause–effect thinking. To that point, understandably, medicine's guiding biomedical model focused only on diseases. Beginning with Engel's model, medical thinking has slowly evolved by incorporating and integrating psychosocial components. The biopsychosocial model stems from what many consider the modern articulation of science, general system theory.3–5 Engel's model prescribes a fundamentally different path from the still-guiding biomedical model: to be scientific, a model for medicine must include the psychosocial dimensions (personal, emotional, family, community) in addition to the biological aspects (diseases) of all patients. By integrating these multiple, interacting components of the subject of our science—the patient—we also become more humanistic. We link science and humanism. While this revolution/evolution in medicine has not yet supplanted the biomedical model, the biopsychosocial model now is taught in most medical schools, and most practitioners are familiar with the term and its meaning.6 But the problem we now face is that the model itself does not address the intricate process needed for achieving relevant biopsychosocial understanding of the patient. Identified by the Western Ontario group, “patient-centered” medicine developed as the approach (process) for implementing or operationalizing the biopsychosocial model.7–10 This new approach puts the patient's needs foremost (e.g., interests, concerns, questions, ideas, requests) but continues to include disease issues. Applied to the interview, we always integrate the patient-centered process with ‘doctor-centered’ interviewing (for disease details). By enhancing communication and provider-patient relationships (PPRs), patient-centered interviewing produces the relevant biopsychosocial reality of each patient at each visit. It changes the model from an intellectual construct to a practical means for a more scientific understanding of every patient. Patient-centered interviewing is the flip side of the biopsychosocial coin; they go hand-in-hand, process and content. Encompassing the dyadic patient-centered approach, newly described “relationship-centered” care (RCC) goes one step further.11,12 RCC extends the person-centered process to the remainder of the medical system, encouraging communication and relational principles at all levels, e.g., among administrators, nurses, doctors, and unions.13 This issue of the Journal of General Internal Medicine highlights the PPR and communication (and, therefore, the biopsychosocial model) in primary care research. For example, the work of Forrest et al. concerns the better understanding of some determinants of the PPR.14 They found that HMO patients rated the PPR lower when required to select a physician from a list and/or to get authorization for referral. The authors avoided the common pitfall of criticizing managed care and urging a change in its rules. Rather, while the HMO is doing its job to control continuously escalating costs,15 the authors acknowledge that the focus could profitably be upon the PPR itself (and, inextricably related, communication). This laudable position recognizes that the exigencies of managed care have increased already strong demands upon physicians to establish effective relationships and communication. The wisdom of focusing upon the PPR and not recommending simple administrative change can be found in a literature replete with the health outcome benefits of being patient-centered, many of which studies were randomized controlled trials; see reviews.16–18 The authors caution rightly that study other than their cross-sectional work will be needed to place their findings in proper perspective. For example, we do not know if administrative changes will have any impact on health without simultaneously addressing communication/PPR. Heisler et al. did not directly study the PPR but evaluated closely related communication-based predictors: patients’ perceptions of participatory decision making, informing patients, and understanding.19 They found that self-reported, improved outcomes of diabetes self-management were closely related to informing patients and, not surprisingly, to patient understanding. Informing and motivating patients are key patient-centered interviewing skills. But understanding alone is not sufficient, particularly where the patient may need to make unwanted changes, such as to begin a diet or quit smoking. For example, the following additional factors, among others, can also affect outcomes: specific PPR variables (e.g., empathy, open-ended inquiry), self-efficacy, satisfaction, compliance, cognitive ability, stress level, autonomy, and readiness to change. While the authors’ caveats about a cross-sectional study are germane, we applaud their addition to the increasing body of research indicating that patients benefit from being informed. We may think we provide sufficient information, but patients typically disagree20–22 and, perhaps with the stress of their illnesses, they often forget information they do receive.23 These papers, and several others in this issue, underscore the central role of communication and PPR in primary care and, therefore, the need to train students and physicians in patient-centered interviewing methods. While it is encouraging that more training now occurs, we need much more teaching for both students6 and residents.24 Although we have effective patient-centered interviewing methods, the need to teach them remains, especially for those beyond residency training, who often have had little previous exposure. For continuing medical education and faculty development, a wonderful resource has evolved (nurtured by the Society of General Internal Medicine) over the last 2 decades and has been a unique, valuable dissemination mechanism: The American Academy on Physician and Patient (AAPP) (www.physicianpatient.org). AAPP provides week-long training at its annual meeting (June) and also frequently conducts 1- to 2-day training sessions throughout the United States, always tailored to the needs and interests of those who invite them. The amount as well as the quality of research about PPR/communication in this issue can encourage us. These works provide testimony to our increasing focus upon the psychosocial aspects of primary care and to moving beyond an isolated interest in disease. Continuing to painstakingly generate sound evidence for psychosocial medicine fosters a needed maturation of this newer aspect of medicine—a prerequisite for the blossoming of a more scientific medicine.

Abstract: This article serves as a follow up to a 1997 article in the Journal of Nursing Education, in which the author presented a historical overview of the ways in which views of measurement validity had changed during the past half century. The new American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, released in 1999, includes a revised conceptualization of validity. The key changes, including the elimination of the old "trinity" view of validity and the operationalization of validity as five types of evidence, are described in this article, and specific ways to obtain evidence of each type are provided. The article concludes with a brief discussion of some of the major continuing issues and challenges in validity theory and practice.

Abstract: This paper explores ways in which knowledge management (KM) can enrich and be enriched by practices associated with social‐level knowledge‐based development (KBD), thus bridging both fields. It begins by establishing a continuity between personal‐, organizational‐ and social‐level KM. Social‐level KBD is referred to economic growth theory in search of a complete, consistent, systematic and inclusive framework for global development. Enter capital systems, a KM framework aiming to satisfy those criteria at the organizational level. The capital systems approach, originally developed as a solution to some methodological concerns in intellectual capital valuation, is described as the operationalization of a generic value structure. Such a structure is applied to the analysis of production or value‐enhancing dynamics underlying major economic eras throughout human history until the present day. Structural constraints in current financing for development practices are identified. New knowledge‐based development strategies are explored and, finally, examples of current KBD policies are examined in the light of this analysis and alternative strategies to systematically identify and develop individual, organizational and capital systems are suggested.

Abstract: The concept of environmental uncertainty is recognized as a fundamental element of the strategic management and organizational theory literature. Unfortunately, the development of inconsistent conceptualizations and operationalizations of uncertainty have muddled the true meanings of the construct. In an effort to reverse this disturbing trend, this paper systematically analyzes the historical development of the uncertainty construct. Seminal management literature is used to trace the construct’s evolution over the last 60 years and to speak to the original meanings of its key elements. The rise of the information uncertainty and resource dependence schools is explored, as is the evolution of the construct’s operationalization from simple to complex measures. Insights provided by this analysis form the basis of a categorization scheme for conceptualizations and operationalizations of uncertainty. This categorization and the discussion that accompanies it are intended to provide future researchers with greater precision and consistency in the use of the environmental uncertainty construct.

Abstract: The present study aimed to refine the participative management concept in schools by adopting a multidimensional approach. Specifically, the author examined simultaneously five dimensions of participative management: decision domain, degree of participation, structure, target of participation, and rationale. The data were obtained from a sample of 99 elementary school principals. The results of the present study highlight the readiness of principals to utilize participative approaches to decision making mainly out of pragmatic motives to achieve valued organizational results. Principals tended to involve teachers more in the technical domain than in the managerial domain mostly by using consultative methods of participation, and they preferred to include teachers based on their motivation rather than their expertise. The findings suggest that participative management is a complex concept that consists of several dependent yet distinct dimensions; therefore, its conceptualization and operationalization should be examined by themselves, before an investigation of their antecedents and consequences.

Abstract: Difference scores have been widely used in many areas of marketing research. There have been numerous criticisms of difference scores, and the authors add to these criticisms by testing an implicit assumption of difference scores that has not been tested in consumer research. Specifically, difference scores assume that the components have equal and opposite effects on the dependent variable. This assumption is tested in a services setting in which difference scores are still widely used and in a laboratory experiment using a product. An alternative operationalization, the Direct Effects Model, is shown to be superior. In addition, as a result of treating the antecedents as separate predictors, it is shown that performance is the much stronger predictor of satisfaction compared to expectations. Such a finding could not be uncovered using difference scores.

Abstract: This report provides an overview of benefit-cost analysis (BCA); an application of benefit-cost analysis to the performance-based earthquake engineering (PBEE) framework; consideration of critical issues in using benefit-cost analysis for PBEE; and a discussion of issues, criticism, and limitations of benefit-cost analysis. Our objective is to provide an understanding of the economic dimensions of PEER’s framework equation. A focus on economic evaluation will broaden the framework so that facility damage in earthquakes can be related to functionality, business interruption and revenue loss, and to repair costs. Such an analysis needs to consider issues such as the time value of money, uncertainty, and the perspectives of different stakeholders. The application of BCA to PBEE has produced a number of important findings. First, an example is developed that illustrates the way in which performance criteria can be operationalized in an economic context. Next, a number of benefit categories are identified (cost of emergency response and loss of long-term revenue) that have not been previously considered in studies of seismic mitigation decision making. Additionally, several critical issues are examined, most notably multiple stakeholders and uncertainty, that need to be considered when carrying out a benefit-cost analysis in a performance-based engineering context. Throughout the report, particular attention is paid to issues of concern to PEER researchers and the seismic-mitigation community, most notably, the differences between BCA and life cycle cost analysis (LCCA). These differences are extensively discussed and illustrated. Finally the ways in which the value of human life can be economically evaluated are examined.

Abstract: Privacy may be interpreted in different ways in different contexts, and may be achieved by means of different mechanisms It is also frequently intertwined with security concerns However, other requirements such as functionality, usability and reliability, must also be addressed since they often compete among each other While the understanding of technical mechanisms for addressing privacy has been growing, systematic approaches are needed to guide software engineers to elicit, model and reason about privacy requirements and to address them during design In a networked world, multi-agent systems have been emerging as a new approach Each agent may have his own goals and beliefs and social relationships with each other Each agent may have his own perspective concerning privacy Perspectives from different agents may conflict with each other Moreover, they may conflict with other requirements such as availability and performance In this paper we present a framework to model the way agents interact with each other to achieve their goals The framework uses a catalogue to guide the software engineer through alternatives for achieving privacy Each alternative will be modeled showing how it contributes to privacy as well as to other requirements within this agent or in other agents The approach is based on the i* framework Privacy is modeled as a special type of goal We show how one can model privacy concerns for each agent and the different alternatives for operationalizing it An example in the health care domain is used to illustrate

Abstract: To revitalize the discussion on dominant logic our paper aims to establish the forgotten link between dominant logic and firm performance. To do so, the concept is enhanced conceptually and operationalized by developing a framework including firms' conceptualization of the business (external environment) and of themselves (internal environment) and performance. The framework is applied to a longitudinal study of two consumer electronics firms. The empirical evidence shows that differences in dominant logic lead to different strategic reactions to developments in the industry, and thus result in performance differences.

Abstract: Preface. EcoSummit Participant List. Introduction: Understanding and Solving Environmental Problems in the 21st Century: Toward a new, integrated "hard problem science" (R. Costanza, S.E. Jorgensen). References. 1. Integrated Assessment and Modeling - Science for Sustainability (G. Harris). Abstract. Introduction. The global context. Changes to the enterprise of scientific research. "Clean and green" drivers on policy and markets. The science of IA and IAM - integration and synthesis. IAM and ESM - the science of the future? References. 2. The Potential for Integrated Assessment and Modeling to Solve Environmental Problems: Vision, Capacity, and Direction (P. Parker et al.). Introduction. Integration. Visions of the future. Optimistic view. Pessimistic view. Evolution of IAM. IAM current position: Points of agreement. Case studies. Model complexity. Validation. Integrated Assessment. Agent-based models. Communication. Values in models. Future of IAM. Links to other groups. Conclusion. References. 3. Complex Adaptive Hierarchical Systems (B.C. Patten et al.). The new confrontation - biocomplex wholeness. Complexity. Adaptation and hierarchy. Measuring the organizational complexity of CAHSystems. Measuring the complexity of genomes and organisms - biocomplexity. Exergy-based orientors in a natural (virgin) forest. Exergy and information of solar radiation. Emergy and exergy. Integration of orientors. Adaptation and hierarchy, again. Systemicity. Eco-anthropic CAHSystems. A polycentric approach to integrated assessment. Eco-geological assessment towards sustainable coastal development in Yogyakarta, Indonesia - scale adjustment to observe and analyze CAHSystems. Contents. Concluding thoughts. Glossary. References. 4. Complex Adaptive Hierarchical Systems (B.C. Patten et al.). Introduction. About theory. About applications. About modeling. Conclusions. References. 5. Ecosystem Services, Their Use and the Role of Ecological Engineering: State of the Art (A. Dakers). Introduction. Defining ecosystem services. Humankind's relationship with the natural environment. Anthropocentric or ecocentric valuing. Ecosystem relationships - embeddedness. Valuing ecosystem services. The use and misuse of ecosystem services. Designing and engineering to restore a sustainable relationship with ecosystems. Making better use of ecosystem services. Frontline projects. Players involved in achieving better use of ecosystem services. Engineer as designer. Ecological engineering. Case Study 1: Ministry of Transport in the Netherlands. Case Study 2: Oxelosund Vatmark, Sweden. Case Study 3: Donaumoos - Germany. Case Study 4: Kaja, As, Norway. Case Study 5: Aremark. Case Study 6: Kagerod Recycling Project. Case Study 7: Ruswil, Switzerland. Case Study 8: Calcutta Wastewater-fed Aquaculture. Case Study 9: Stensund Aquaculture Centre. Case Study 10: Water Enhancement Programme, Christchurch. Case study evaluation. Under-utilization of ecosystem services. Conclusions. Acknowledgements. References. 6. Ecosystem Services (B. Guterstam et al.). Introduction. Ecosystem services. Key questions and common ground. The role of ecosystems services tomorrow. Conclusions. References. 7. Science and Decision-Making (V.H. Dale). Science and decision-making. Scientists' role in decision-making. Three case studies. Mount St. Helens. Tennessee Cedar Barrens. The Brazilian Amazon. Lessons learned. Characteristics of scientists and decision-makers influence how they interact. Questions about the relationship between science and decision-making. Acknowledgements. References. 8. Science and Decision-Making (E.J. Rykiel Jr. et al.). Introduction. Working definitions. Multiple roles of science. The role of scientists in controversial issues. Scientists and activism. Education of scientists. Science based on holism. Increasing the effectiveness of the individual environmental scientist. Pathways to involvement in decision-making. Changing the environmental science curriculum. Case studies. Integrating science and economics for environmental policymaking in Europe. Lake management and demand-driven research in the Netherlands. Conclusions. Acknowledgements. References. 9. Ecosystem Health and Human Health (L. Vasseur et al.). Introduction. Ecosystems, humans, and the concept of health. Ecosystems. Health. Ignoring the link. Climate change. Agrosystems and food production. Biodiversity and declining productive capacity. Discussion. Acknowledgements. References. 10. Ecosystem Health and Human Health: Healthy Planet, Healthy Living (L. Vasseur et al.). Abstract. Introduction. Linkages between ecosystem health and human health. Air quality. Water resources. Food resources. Soils. Biodiversity. Other models. Sources of solutions. Priority actions. Barriers to effective action. Sustenance needs. Little connection to the land. Resistance to change. Ignorance. Low critical mass. Measures, indicators, or metrics of progress. Conclusions. Acknowledgements. References. 11. Quality of Life and the Distribution of Wealth and Resources (R. Costanza et al.). Abstract. How is Quality of Life (QOL) defined? How has Quality of Life been measured? Economic income, economic welfare, and human welfare. Level and pattern of economic activity: gross national product. Sustainable economic income. Measuring economic welfare. Contents. Assessing human welfare directly. A comparison of two approaches to fairness in the distribution of wealth and resources. Fairness across individuals in space. Fairness across individuals in time. Fairness across countries in space and time. Can we measure fairness? What is the relationship between fairness and QOL? Principles for achieving a sustainable, fair, and high-QOL society. Acknowledgments. References. 12. Quality of Life and the Distribution of Wealth and Resources (J. Farley et al.). Abstract. How do we define Quality of Life (QOL)? What are human needs? Satisfiers and wants. Implications of our definition for improving QOL. QOL and the four capitals. How can we measure QOL? Are objective measures suitable? Operationalizing human needs assessment as a measure of QOL. Ecosystem services: indicators to integrate with QOL. The implications of using HNA as a measure of QOL. Development of indicators of fairness in the distribution of wealth and resources. Natural capital and market failures. The elimination of poverty. Maximum income level. Geographical fairness. Approaches to measuring fairness. Ecosystem health and functioning markets. Poverties and pathologies. Wealth and power. A Quality of Life Gini Coefficient? Implications of the relationship between fairness and QOL. Positional wealth. Contents. Income inequality as a detriment to QOL. Do we still need incentives to produce? How do we achieve sustainable, fair, and high QOL? Current world setting. Policy suggestions. Natural capitalism, increased efficiency, industrial ecology, and dematerialization. Conclusion. Appendix. The Sustainability Bill of Rights. References. Conclusions (R.E. Jorgensen, R. Costanza). References. Author Index. Subject Index.

Abstract: Without jargon or mathematical theory to hinder a quick understanding and use, here are the research tools and techniques you can grasp and immediately apply to obtain research services from others or do research yourself. Johnson makes clear that to succeed in any public agency management position, you have to be able to think analytically and know how to assess the quality of research results. By providing the underlying concepts and just enough methodology to operationalize them, she gives you exactly what you need—in a clear, straightforward way that takes the fear out of learning. You will find here an especially wide range of practical guidelines and examples, all from the author's own and others' experiences in a variety of settings within the public sector. Throughout her book she emphasizes the how of research—how to do it, how to make sense of its findings—and covers all the basic statistical tools, concetrating steadily on interpreting research results. An important, reader-friendly text for students of public administration, and for their often perplexed colleagues already on the job. Johnson explains that public administrators do not do research themselves all that often. But with the rising demand for results measurement, balancing scorecards, benchmarking and assessing customer satisfaction, they do need to understand the basics of what research is and at least have more than just a glimmer of how it is done. Her book offers both—a simple, easily grasped presentation of research concepts and principles, plus all of the essentials of doing program evaluation, policy analysis, and applied social science. It is especially useful as a text in such courses as research methods, program evaluation and introduction to applied statistics, usually found in public administration programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels. And for people already in jobs outside the academic community, people who are now asked to do tasks that they seldom did before—and never expected they would be asked to do—it is essential.

Abstract: This article argues that the popular, but at times, misapplied approaches of person-centered planning can be remedied through scientific practices. Person-centered planning is described in the context of an evolving disabilities culture that is selecting practices that achieve the values of the new paradigm. Operationalizing outcomes that constitute aspects of quality of life (QOL) can be challenging, but the main obstacle to an empirical analysis of person-centered planning appears to be reliable implementation of its complex process. Resolution of these problems is seen as a cutting edge for expanding our applied research technology in assisting people with disabilities achieve the values to which they aspire.

Abstract: Software process improvement (SPI) approaches have been designed to produce changes at many levels, i.e. in the strategies, culture and working practices, of software development. Studies have shown that nearly two thirds of all SPI efforts have failed or fallen short of expectations. It is often stated in SPI-related literature and practice that "commitment" to SPI plays an important part in determining whether an SPI endeavor ultimately becomes a success or a failure. However, it often remains unclear what this concept actually means and how it affects SPI. This thesis argues for a scientifically grounded concept of commitment and delivers a description and a definition of this concept in the context of software process improvement. The elaboration of the concept is based on a literature study, which makes the research done in behavioral psychology and organizational science applicable in the field of software process improvement. This thesis shows that current thinking relies on practical models of commitment, and the empirically validated analysis conducted within this study reveals a number of common misleading assumptions regarding the notion and development of commitment in SPI. On this basis, this thesis suggests that the commitment phenomenon is better explained through what can be called strategic, operational and personal commitment nets. This framework can be used for analyzing the unfolding and alteration of commitment towards a specific entity, in this case a software process improvement endeavor, through time and changing circumstances. The viability and usefulness of the commitment nets framework is demonstrated through an analysis of four SPI cases in two software organizations. As a result, it is shown that even though the objective features of SPI in terms of costs and benefits may be dominating in the project initiation phase, their role tends to lose strength later on due to an inability of the SPI effort to produce quick and meaningful results, even if these are explicitly sought for. This phenomenon gives rise to a need for enhancing the role of social and psychological drivers. If this is not achieved, SPI activities are likely to cease to exist. The empirical analysis demonstrates that the use of the commitment nets model enables a more precise analysis of the various aspects involved in the commitment phenomenon than what would have been possible with current commitment models. Commitment, as conceptualized and operationalized in this thesis, makes a significant contribution to the outcome of the SPI initiative. The empirical evidence shows that, eventually, even well-planned SPI initiatives may fail to reach the goals set for them due to changes in commitment nets.

Abstract: Background: The EFCOSUM (European Food Consumption Survey Methods) Project aims at harmonizing food consumption surveys in European countries within the perspective of an overall Public Health Monitoring Programme. Harmonization implies the need for a common framework of procedures and tools, that are applicable and feasible in all potentially interested countries. A major element in such a framework is the protocol for the operationalization of a food consumption survey, referring to all practical, logistical and material conditions that need to be fulfilled in order to guarantee a successful implementation of such a survey. Objective: The objective of this paper was to review a number of aspects of operationalization of food consumption surveys in detail. On the basis of the currently available knowledge and experience in Europe, consensus recommendations have been elaborated for an operationalization protocol that would be feasible for all European countries. Methods: The EFCOSUM recommendations with respect to operationalization of food consumption surveys in Europe are mainly based on three sources of information, which have been discussed at several ad hoc expert meetings: experience from previous collaborative epidemiological studies, literature searches and results of two questionnaires, distributed among representatives from 23 European countries-all experts affiliated with experienced organizations in the fields of nutrition research and related fields. Results: Consensus recommendations have been set up for the following topics: sampling, recruitment, fieldwork, biomarkers, interviewer qualifications and training and quality control. These recommendations have to be considered the best achievable common denominator within Europe at this time. In a number of cases, recommendations are presented in a hierarchical way, with a gradation from first choice options towards acceptable alternatives. Conclusions: It can be concluded that a high degree of standardization of fieldwork can be achieved within Europe. A number of specific problems and constraints will have to be solved in connection with the conduction of a real survey. These problems include, amongst others, country-specific decisions on, for example, target population, detailed sampling and recruiting procedures, interview setting and support. However, on the whole, these problems can be overcome and the main recommendations presented in this paper are considered feasible for every country in Europe. Application of the EFCOSUM operationalization protocol in European countries will contribute significantly to the quality and comparability of food consumption data across Europe. It is anticipated that the policy supporting and orienting potential of this type of databases-both at the national and at the EU supranational level-will be increased accordingly. Sponsorship: European Commision, DG SANCO F/3, Health Monitoring Programme. © 2002 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved.

Abstract: In this paper we discuss some issues in designing and re-using an abstract ontology for domain modelling. We take our Generalized Upper Model Knowledge Base (GUM)|an ontology being developed primarily for Natural Language Processing applications|as starting point. The GUM knowledge base has been used in several contexts, including multilingual generation projects and information retrieval projects, supporting di erent knowledge domains. The motivations for this `linguistically motivated' ontology are proving themselves to o er re-usability across domains, tasks, and languages as well as the possibility of large scaling-up. We describe the general principles underlying the organization of the knowledge base, some steps towards extending its use, and some examples of the content thus motivated. 1 MOTIVATIONS AND OVERVIEW Experience with constructing general natural language generation and analysis components has demonstrated that interfacing such components with application systems or users is substantially simpli ed by the provision of general organizations of information that are linguistically motivated (cf. Penman [36], xtra [1], lilog [24], Alfresco [40] and many others| see [3] for a comprehensive overview of positions. Moreover, in order to be e ective, it is argued in [2] that such general organizations of information must aim to achieve two potentially con icting goals. On the one hand, the Magnini is partially supported by the European Union LRE (Language Research and Engineering) projects gist and transterm. Fabris is supported by a grant from the Comune di Trento. Bateman is also a member of the Penman Project, USC/Information Sciences Institute, Marina del Rey, Los Angeles. In addition to the authors of the present paper, the current stage of development of the Generalized Upper Model has been signi cantly shaped by Renate Henschel and Fabio Rinaldi. organization must achieve a su cient level of abstraction in the semantic types employed as to escape the idiosyncracies of surface realization and ease interfacing with (possibly non-linguistically oriented) domain knowledge. While on the other, the organization must still maintain a su ciently close relationship to surface regularities as to permit operationalisation and interfacing with natural language surface components. When the link with surface realization is broken, our experiences shows that the modelling-style becomes under-constrained and re-usability su ers. Our starting point is the ongoing development work on the design and use of upper models as originally proposed in the USC/ISI-BBN Janus collaboration [29, 30, 33]. An upper model is an abstract linguistically motivated ontology meeting both requirements stated above. In [6], we introduced our current work in which we are pursuing the development of an upper model that is both su cient for natural language processing needs and re-usable and shareable across di erent languages as well as across different domains/tasks. This Generalized Upper Model provides semantic distinctions appropriate and adequate for supporting natural language processing for (at least) Italian, German and English. Hence, the more speci c designation of the ontology described: the GeneralizedEnglish, German, Italian Upper Model. The design philosophy of this Generalized Upper Model is that linguistically motivated concepts and concept organizations are provided which are as far as possible valid across distinct languages. However, there is no theoretical requirement that all concepts will be relevant for all languages. In this respect our approach di ers from standard conceptions of an `interlingua'. Indeed, it is to be expected that languages di er in the semantic organizations they require. However, it is also expected that the level of abstraction of the Generalized Upper Model is su cient for substantial sharing and re-use across languages precisely because details of surface form have been left behind. The network as a whole, although multilingual in orientation, therefore makes no assumptions of universality. Rather the reverse is the case; that is, we assume that there will be di erences between languages in the kinds of experiential semantic distinctions that they draw. To the extent, however, that di erent grammatical systems need to perform similar communicative functional tasks, they will induce similarities in the semantic organization. The motivation for this position is given in detail in [8, 7, 32, 9]. Our expectations have been strongly supported by our work so far, where extensions and alterations made on the basis of linguistic evidence from some particular language have most often proved equally applicable to the other languages covered. Examples of this for German and English have already been presented in [19]; additional discussion for Italian was presented in [6]. The general organization of information thus created o ers many advantages for knowledge representation. The distinctions drawn tend to be ner and more broadly motivated than distinctions based on non-linguistic, or task or domain speci c knowledge. Moreover, there is the additional functionality that whenever knowledge is organized in the manner described by the Upper Model, its expression in natural language is signi cantly simpli ed. This more ne grained set of categories brings its own problems however: it requires more e ort for a knowledge engineer to use and more information in order to use it correctly. In this paper, our aim is to show some of the steps towards operationalization of the Generalized Upper Model that can be taken and to provide some examples of the kind of modelling it enables. The paper begins with an outline of some of the criteria that have been established for including concepts and discriminations in such ontologies and their use for knowledge representation. We go on to present a detailed application of these criteria in one area of the conceptual hierarchy: that of communication processes. Finally, we brie y overview projects making use of versions of the Upper Model and describe ongoing work. 2 CRITERIA FOR BUILDING THE

Abstract: Flow theory has been borrowed from psychology to address positive user experiences with personal computers, and more recently, the Internet. The flow experience has been correlated to increased exploratory behavior, communication, learning, positive affect, and computer use. This paper reviews the flow studies within computer-mediated environments to gain a more coherent understanding. The authors identify ambiguities in the conceptualization of flow, challenges in the operationalization of flow constructs, and difficulties in data collection.

Abstract: This article examines the potential for partnership to address two major challenges in public service: (1) the evolving sociopolitical context of public service, that is, the increasing incidence and intensity of conflict among diverse stakeholders; and (2) the formulation of acceptable and feasible global public policy. The partnership approach, its value added, and its operationalization are examined through the World Commission on Dams, a partnership designed to resolve conflicts over large dam projects. The analysis identifies lessons that are specific to conflict-based partnerships for global public policy making and regarding partnership work more generally. The importance of converging interests, policy champions, democratic processes, and perception are highlighted. Intense conflict provides incentives for joint solution, but process agreement is paramount, and conflict resolution is not a one-time effort for all. The World Commission on Dams demonstrates that partnership is an effective and efficient approach to addressing conflictive policy issues.

Abstract: This article re-evaluates Graham Allison's approach to bureaucratic politics in the second edition of his Essence of Decision, authored with Philip Zelikow. Although the renewed analytical framework still appears to be an excellent tool for describing policy decision-making processes, the numerous criticisms it received in the past with respect to its difficult operationalization is a problem left unsolved. To respond to this major difficulty, the author of this article combines Vincent Lemieux's structuration of power with Allison's approach. In order to validate the ensuing model, an empirical test is then conducted using the case study of the 1987 Canadian White Paper on Defence. This original proposition opens up avenues of research in the fields of foreign as well as public policy making.