Abstract: concepts of administrative processes must be operationalized and new ones developed or borrowed from the basic social sciences. Available knowledge in scattered sources needs to be assembled and analyzed. Research must go beyond description and must be reflected against theory. It must study the obvious as well as the unknown. The pressure for immediately applicable results must be reduced. At first this sounds like standard visionary boilerplate. On closer inspection, it foreshadows values that stand up well

Abstract: This article explores the way in which scientific literacy has been defined, justified, and operationalized in current proposals for science education reform. We argue that, although the vision of scientific literacy reflected in reform proposals is broad, progressive, and inclusive, it is being implemented in narrow and conventional ways. As a consequence, we are not optimistic that current proposals will lead to a significant increase in the scientific literacy of the U. S. population. In the article, we discuss limitations in the current direction of science education reform and examine some alternate ways of thinking about it.

Abstract: One of the roles of qualitative enquiry is the utilization of qualitative methods for the development, refinement or modification of concepts. Yet, to date, there are no criteria for evaluating the adequacy of a concept. In this paper, the anatomy of a concept is presented, methods of concept analysis critiqued, and criteria for evaluation of the level of maturity of a concept suggested. Evaluation of criteria include assessment of: the definition of the concept, the characteristics of the concept, the conceptual preconditions and outcomes, and the conceptual boundaries. The authors argue that evaluation of a concept must necessarily precede concept development research (using a Wilsonian-derived method, a critical analysis of the literature, or qualitative enquiry) and precede more formal research procedures (such as operationalization or identification of the variables).

Abstract: The four major methodological approaches to concept analysis (Wilson-derived methods, qualitative methods, critical analysis of the literature, and quantitative methods) are compared. The authors suggest that qualitative methods and methods that critically analyze the literature may be selected according to the level of the maturity of the concept and the purpose of the analysis. These methods have the ability to facilitate inquiry for concept development, delineation, comparison, clarification, correction, and identification. Quantitative methods may be used for exploring concepts (e.g., delineating conceptual boundaries), and quantitative instrumentation may be used for concept validation, operationalization, and measurement, thus complementing concept analysis methods by moving inquiry into another level of investigation. The authors conclude by presenting criteria for the selection of an appropriate research approach for concept analysis and criteria for evaluating concept analysis research.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to better understand strategic management using the dynamic capabilities approach. The authors have focused on two fundamental constructs of dynamic capabilities, technological learning and strategic flexibility, and discerned their influence on organizational performance. Their main argument has been that a firm's strategic flexibility moderates the relationship between technological learning and technological performance as evidenced by new product development. Their model is based on the synthesis of the traditions of research in strategic and technology management. Technological learning has been defined in two dimensions: internal and external learning. Strategic flexibility has been operationalized in financial, marketing, manufacturing, and technological dimensions. Data from the US ethical pharmaceutical industry for 1977-1991 have been used to test their hypotheses. Although they found support for their basic argument, they have observed that the strategic flexibility factors are related with the variables in a more complex way. Furthermore, internal learning involves a different process than learning from external sources. The robustness of their finding is due to the longitudinal data and objective indicators used in measuring the constructs. Implications for further research and managerial actions are also discussed.

Abstract: Recent years have seen a wave of empirical studies attempting to give empirical content to the theory of optimum currency areas as a way of marshalling evidence on the costs and benefits of EMU. This paper reviews this empirical literature, as a way of examining the success with which theory has been operationalized. We also report some new work on the impact of German unification and increasing economic integration in Europe on correlations of underlying disturbances and on geographic specialization of production. We conclude with some thoughts about directions for future research.

Abstract: The reconstructions of two U.S. tourists who visited Britain were used to explore the utility of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory (PCT) for better understanding the nature of tourists' experiences. Data were gathered from five structured interviews with each respondent, spaced over an eight month period. A series of four repertory grids were developed with each respondent, aided by the PLANET software package. These were used to identify shifts in constructs attributable to the vacation. Results from the testing of four hypotheses indicated the extent to which each individual's vacation could be described as experience.KEYWORDS: Personal Construct Theory, tourist experience, phenomenologyIntroduction At the level of an individual tourist, the primary goals of a leisure trip or vacation are likely to be experiential. Although, by definition, goals will be sought through travel outside the home environment, this geographical dimension is merely the mechanism through which experiential goals are met. The experiential dimension of leisure and tourism trips has not been widely explored. Most analyses of tourists' experiences appearing in the literature are based upon Clawson and Knetsch's (1966) model of the recreation experience. This model involves five more or less distinct and yet interacting phases: (1) An anticipation phase, (2) travel to the site, (3) on-site activity, (4) return travel, and (5) a recollection phase. For example, Hammitt (1980) provided an empirical test of this model by measuring changes of mood amongst participants on an educational/recreational field trip. He produced weak evidence which supported the five-stage model. The model has also served as a conceptual framework for studies concerned with the role of perception in recreation (Mercer, 1971), and environmental psychology in tourism (Fridgen, 1984). This geographical operationalization implicitly fits the mechanistic model of the person which predominates in the tourism literature and was caricatured in the type of tourist behavior graphically described by Boorstin (1962).The study reported here considers a very different model of the person stemming from the work of Kelly (1955), who viewed each individual as a "personal scientist". It represented an attempt to explore the ability of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory (PCT) for better conceptualizing and understanding the nature of tourists' experiences. Any research that takes its inspiration from Kelly's theory requires the application of particular methods in order to be consistent with the ontology and epistemology that flows from his philosophical position. This article demonstrates these methods in an application of Kelly's general theory to the specific case of tourists' experiences.Since the publication of Kelly's work, a relatively small but dedicated international community of psychologists, clinicians and therapists, and social scientists have continued to apply and elaborate on Personal Construct Psychology (PCP). Kelly's work has been shown to have influenced leading proponents of existential (Soffer, 1990), humanistic (Epting & Leitner, 1992) and cognitive (Warren, 1990, 1991) psychology.Kelly's basic psychological premise is encapsulated in the fundamental postulate of his theory which states, "A person's processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events" (Kelly, 1955, p. 46). Kelly states his philosophy in these terms: "The universe is existing and man is gradually coming to understand it" (p. 6). For Kelly, man is a prototype scientist continually seeking prediction of his world. Kelly's "man" acts through a structured network which leads towards the future and equips him or her to anticipate real events:Essentially, construct theory posits that the sine qua non of human existence is our tendency to attribute unique meanings to the data of our experience. These meanings, termed "personal constructs" serve not only as interpretation of past events but also as hypotheses about events yet to be encountered. …

Abstract: What motivates use of an expert system? Recent studies have found that the anticipated performance benefits of using an expert system -- such as increases in decision quality, consistency, and speed of decision making -- can lead to increases in expected usage. But is motivation limited to performance benefits? Findings in job design theory suggest that other factors -- such as increasing a user's sense of control over a task or making a task less routine -- might also have an impact. If so, understanding these factors could be extremely valuable to managers seeking to build expert systems that will be readily accepted by users. This paper synthesizes findings from expert systems, information systems, and job design research to model how the task change experienced by an expert systems user during adoption can affect that user's motivation to continue using the system. Using existing task constructs from the job design literature, a simplified version of the model is operationalized and tested on a data set of expert systems (all constructed in the early and mid-1980s) for which extensive quantitative and qualitative task change data was available, as well as data on systems usage. The findings suggest significant relationships between the nature of the task changes associated with adoption and long-term usage of the systems, all consistent with the predictions of the job design literature. The study, therefore, concludes that a job design perspective of expert systems adoption can be a valuable tool in predicting user acceptance and, ultimately, systems usage.

Abstract: Information systems (IS) effectiveness is a complex variable. The literature on organizational effectiveness suggests that it may not be possible to find a precise measure of IS effectiveness and the criteria for effectiveness may vary from organization to organization. A popular perceptual construct, user satisfaction, is examined through a review of IS effectiveness literature. Problems with this construct are highlighted and the social psychology literature is used to clarify these problems. It is noted that theories and models from the behavioural sciences offer a sound basis for understanding the problems with conceptualization and operationalization of user satisfaction. As a result of this review, we offer some principles to keep in mind when utilizing user satisfaction as a measure of IS effectiveness.

Abstract: This article argues that consensual political institutions as operationalized by Lijphart and Crepaz (1991) have significantly favorable effects on unemployment, inflation, and the number of working days lost, whereas economic growth remains unaffected. Although this finding is consistent with Olson's theoretical concept of “encompassing organizations,” this study shows that Olson's empirical operationalization is flawed. “Strong,” two-party “Westminster” systems, based on single-member district electoral rules, and single-party, bare majority cabinets do not perform as well as “weak,” multiparty coalition governments with proportional representation as an electoral rule. An empirical measure of “encompassing organizations” is introduced, termed popular cabinet support. A cross-sectional/time-series panel study of 162 elections (18 countries and 9 elections per country, N = 162) provides strong evidence that governments with consensual, inclusive, and accommodative constitutional structures and wider popu...

Abstract: Seven environmental management strategy models were reviewed, investigating their classification approaches, underlying structures and assumptions. Two major types of classification approaches are identified: (i) continuum/progression and (ii) categorical. A deductive approach is used for model development and only one model, that of Schot, has been evaluated in a research context. This evaluation sets a background for understanding the current research which utilizes the continuum model proposed by Hunt and Auster as the research framework for a study of eight Norwegian firms in two industries: printing and food processing. One conclusion of the study points to the inadequacy of the Hunt and Auster model as a research framework. Difficulties in classifying the companies into the model were evident when a multi-dimensional construct was collapsed into a linear rating scale. This did not lead to a successful approach to the classification of the companies being studied. A different analysis approach, which maintains the multi-dimensional nature of the data (cluster analysis), was then used to develop a new model. Through using an inductive approach, a preliminary empirically based model where all the data can be placed into the model is proposed. Another conclusion of the paper is that further research leading to the development of more empirically derived environmental management models is needed.

Abstract: An approach for including biological diversity in calculations of multiobjective forest planning is described. This makes it possible to consider biodiversity as a decision objective among multiple objectives in tactical forest planning. Biodiversity is operationalized by decomposing it into measurable environmental components that describe its dimensions. The relative importance of the components is assessed via pairwise comparisons. The relationship between the value of the component and the overall biodiversity is estimated and described for each component as a subpriority function. The relationship can be nonlinear. A biodiversity index is calculated for each alternative forest plan based on the components and their weighting, the subpriority functions, and the predicted qualities of the forest area when implementing the plans. The approach is illustrated by a case study. Using this approach, the relationship between biodiversity and the other objective variables, as well as the effects of the compone...

Abstract: Argues that key account management (KAM) in industrial and business‐to‐business markets has its roots in sales management where it has long been recognized that customers of strategic importance require special treatment. Explains that, more recently, growing interest among academics and practitioners in relationship marketing has forced KAM centre stage as one of the few seemingly tried and tested approaches to customer retention and development, but that this trend has exposed three interrelated problems for the adoption of KAM systems. Maintains that: first, many companies have merely extended their traditional approaches to major account selling, rather than transforming their internal processes to accommodate the wider relational aspects of KAM; second, there has been a rush to define managerial competences and best practice, with little theoretical or empirical underpinning; and third, despite parallel developments in purchasing and supply‐chain management, there has been a tendency for the sellers’ perspective to dominate implementation issues. Addresses these problems by operationalizing the relational development model outlined in an earlier article entitled “From key account selling to key account management” (JMP, Vol. 1 No. 1). Draws on the findings from ongoing empirical research which takes the buyer/seller dyadic relationship as the unit of analysis to provide a critique of the relative neglect of KAM processes in preference to outputs in the form of managerial competences.

Abstract: This paper proposes a questionnaire to be added to the inventory of well-developed management information system MIS instruments. In particular, an instrument is presented and tested that measures information system success, at the individual level, in cross-cultural environments. Few MIS instruments have been tested outside the homogeneous domestic environments in which they were developed. Yet the variables such instruments attempt to measure are often operationalized in heterogeneous global environments. Information systems are very costly, especially those implemented globally. Accordingly, the development of a global research instrument that measures the variables that influence successful outcomes is important. The MIS instrument presented in this paper offers the international manager a means by which information system success can be measured at the individual level. In cases of low levels of success, intervention strategies can then be formulated to improve system success in meeting the individual user's needs.

Abstract: Defines a new manufacturing paradigm and investigates its adoption and performances, within the assembly industry on a global basis. The definition of the paradigm is based on a set of basic principles to design and manage production systems which discard the traditional way of organizing manufacturing activities, and pool companies which pursue different manufacturing strategies and implement different innovative techniques. The paradigm is characterized by the simultaneous implementation of three principles: strategic multi‐focusedness, integration of business processes across functions, and process ownership. Starting from an operationalization based on fuzzy logic, explores the hypotheses about the adoption and the performance improvements of the multi‐focused manufacturing paradigm using a sample from the International Manufacturing Strategy Survey (IMSS) database. The paradigm has been adopted widely across countries and industries involved in the IMSS survey. Shows that process ownership is poorly implemented by most of the companies at the moment, while multi‐focusedness and integration are more on hand. Companies which have adopted the paradigm are improving their performance significantly better and quicker than partial or non‐adopters. Highlights different possible patterns that the companies can follow to reach core adoption of the multi‐focused manufacturing paradigm.

Abstract: Decisions for evaluating public project investment most frequently use benefit-cost analysis. The procedure rests on the assumption that an efficient alternative should be selected that maximizes the net aggregate benefits to society as a whole. However, this selection results in projects that invariably provide different levels of benefits to members of a community, thus contravening the principles of equity or distributive justice. Six strategies for dealing with the problem of distributive justice are explored and examined and then applied in a common setting to a public project where several efficient alternatives are proposed. While this research is not prompted by the desire to proclaim a winner from among the strategies, it is evident that some strategies make heroic attempts to reduce inequity. Issues connected with obtaining public consensus are also briefly mentioned.

Abstract: Researchers have offered a variety of models for examining organizational effectiveness, yet there is little consensus as to what constitutes a valid set of criteria for measurement. In today's environment it is vital for construction firms aiming to maintain and improve performance to utilize an appropriate method to predict their organizational effectiveness. This paper illustrates a methodology for predicting the level of organizational effectiveness in the construction firm. The competing values approach towards understanding organizational effectiveness and its assessment is used to identify 14 variables. These variables are conceptualized from four general categories of organizational characteristics, relevant for examining effectiveness: structural context, organizational flexibility, rules and regulations, person-oriented processes and strategic means and ends. The methodology hypothesizes a multivariate linear model of the 14 variables as predictors and effectiveness operationalized by the level ...

Abstract: Understanding children's capacities in legal contexts is an urgent priority for psychology and the law. The distinction between capacity and performance is discussed in light of two research goals: (a) identifying children's capacities relevant to law; and (b) identifying the circumstances under which their performance varies. This discussion leads to three fundamental research issues that are explored. First, in addition to general capacity, the effect of specific legal contexts on performance requires investigation. Second, capacities research must take a developmental approach using appropriate, ecologically valid target and comparison samples. Third, legal standards and their inherent developmental assumptions about children's capacities must be operationalized and investigated from both legal and psychological perspectives.

Abstract: Psychology has made significant strides in developing applications relevant to public health. However, improvements are still needed to integrate psychology into the public health infrastructure. The challenge .(or public health is to recognize psychology's special contributions to poli~T and "practice, especially to prevention of disease and injuo'. The challenge.for psychology is to assure coherent integration of relevant theories, knowledge bases, and public health practice. Recommendations to address these challenges include (a) demonstrating how psychology incrementally improves public health service systems; (b) developing middle range and small theories of public health problems and practice (Lipsey, 1993, Merton, 1968); (c) developing intervention models in partnership with nonpsychologists so that the effects can become widespread," and (d) ongoing scrutiny of the intervention models to assure that theory has been operationalized well. Psychology's unique role in public health is to act as the steward of a correct application of behavioral knowledge and theory.

Abstract: Quality of life has emerged as an important concept and outcome in health and health care. Policy-makers, researchers, clinicians, and the public at large consider perceived quality of life to be an important dimension of the health of a population or an individual. The nature of nursing is such that many of its anticipated outcomes relate to improvement in the quality of life of individuals and populations. There continues to be debate about the actual definition of quality of life, and a concept that is difficult to define will naturally pose challenges to measurement. This has not impeded the proliferation of quality-of-life instruments, since the concept is recognized as an increasingly important clinical and research outcome. Progress has been made in clarifying and operationalizing the concept. We propose a conceptual viewpoint that separates what quality of life is from what contributes to quality of life. This will assist nurse researchers planning to use quality of life as an outcome in evaluating nursing interventions. In clinical or research situations, for the purposes of measurement, an operational definition of quality of life stems from a definition of health. From this is drawn a definition of health-related quality of life (HRQL). For the purpose of outcome measurement, the operational definition relates to the domains important to the study population and the particular health intervention under study. Issues that arise in the measurement of HRQL are also presented.

Abstract: Luhmann (1984) has proposed a second-order theory of social communications, but its formalization in terms of second-order systems theory has remained underdeveloped. Second-order systems theory is...

Abstract: A secondary analysis was performed on a large scale cross-sectional survey (n = 12,500) by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. The analysis investigates (1) 'strain', i.e. whether or not employees in 12 European Union (EU) member states considered their health or safety to be at risk because of their work in relation to psychological demands, job control and social support, (2) the unique contribution of(a combination of) these job characteristics in explaining differences in health and safety risk (HSR), (3) the explanatory value of these job characteristics in comparison to physical job demands, and (4) the relative strength of these determinants in each of the 12 EU member states. Results show that (1) psychological demands, job control and social support are all related to a perceived health and safety risk in the work situation; (2) each of these characteristics has an unique contribution; (3) physical demands, when added to the model, are by far the most influential determinant; and (4) in a cross-national comparison, physical demands are found to be the most influential determinant of HSR in all EU member states. The importance of this study is its large scale and European character. An important limitation, however, relates to the operationalization of the dependent variable. It is concluded that high psychological demands per se constitute a risk of illness and injury from work. The larger number of European employees who consider their health or safety to be at risk because of their work, underlines the necessity of monitoring risk factors and risk groups and of prevention, and also of adequate legislation with respect to working conditions. An important implication of this study is that one should be careful not to underestimate the impact of traditional blue collar stressors in working life in Europe.

Abstract: Luhmann (1984) has proposed a second-order theory of social communications, but its formalization in terms of second-order systems theory has remained underdeveloped. Second-order systems theory is a formal option, and furthermore Shannon's (1948) mathematical theory of communication is available. The operationalization of Luhmann-type (reflexive) communications in terms of Shannon-type (first-order) communications has theoretical consequences: one is able to distinguish, more clearly than Luhmann did, between not (yet) meaningful information ("uncertainty") and its potential meaning after selection by an observing system. Structural coupling between co-evolving systems can be distinguished from operational coupling between sub-systems. This operationalization provides us with means to clarify, among other things, the theoretical debate between Munch and Luhmann about Parsons' concept of "interpenetration". Technological developments can be analyzed in terms of operational and recursive coupling at the interfaces between sciences and markets. In a triple helix model of university-industry-government relations codes of functionally differentiated communication can be translated into each other. Interorganizational configurations support the emerging communication systems.

Abstract: This paper explores the relationship between nursing theory, research and practice. It suggests that the frequently discussed difficulties in operationalizing, testing and implementing nursing theories are perhaps indicative of their lack of fit with clinical practice. The insistence of fitting theories within the four metaparadigm concepts-person, environment, health and nursing-forces nursing theory to an inappropriate level of abstraction and to a level that dilutes its relevance for clinical application. It is possible that, while these theories are useful as philosophies, they lack the clinical relevance that is a critical criterion for theory. Confounding the status quo, the present practice of teaching theory as fact within education and using theory to drive nursing curricula removes the tentative and guiding contribution that a theory contributes to a profession. A plea is made for research that supports the exploration and identification of nursing concepts and for the development of appropriate theory that will guide both nursing research and nursing practice. Since nursing is an applied discipline, this responsibility necessarily falls on the shoulders of researchers who, in partnership with clinicians, can explore, test and refine theory.

Abstract: According to Olson's concept of encompassing organizations, strong two-party, plurality oriented political systems should create more ‘responsible’ public policies than ‘weak’ multi-party governments based on proportional representation. An empirical measure of ‘encompassment’, termed popular cabinet support, is developed and tested in a multivariate controlled statistical analysis of 18 industrialized democracies. While Olson's theoretical concept of encompassing organizations appears to hold, his empirical operationalization, namely, strong two-party systems based on plurality electoral rules, does not. The findings reveal that the alternative measures of ‘encompassment’, popular cabinet support, significantly reduces the rate of unemployment and inflation, indicating that the wider the popular support base of government, the more responsibly these governments behave.

Abstract: School choice is becoming an increasingly common policy in school districts, although it remains controversial and its outcomes are not well understood. This article argues that we need better definitions and measures of the practices and policies that create school choice and that this can contribute to a clearer understanding of the nature of school choice and to more effective planning and evaluation. This article proposes system (district)-level indicators of school choice that operationalize the concept of "school choice. " The types of indicators presented here could produce valuable inter district comparative information on processes and outcomes of school choice.