Abstract: Species diversity of reptiles is much higher in Sundarban than in other mangrove ecosystems in India. Presently snakes are declining in Sundarban due to habitat loss caused by tremendous population pressure. Besides, irresponsible killing to avoid snakebite both from poisonous and nonpoisonous varieties is another reason for the gradual declining snake population. According to an intensive household survey in 35 villages in Sundarban, about 22 species (five poisonous and 17 non-poisonous) of snakes have been identified and there appears to have been a general decline in densities. On the contrary, a large number of people are bitten and die from snakebite every year with 0.57 and 0.34 vulnerability and mortality rate per 10,000 people, respectively. The two most commonly observed poisonous species are the common krait, Bungarus caeruleus (51 %) and common cobra, Naja naja (40 %), and that of non-poisonous varieties are the Ptyas mucosus (41 %), Typhlina bramina (34 %), Xenochrophis piscator (12 %), and Amphiesma stolata (10 %). Apart from killing of snakes out of fear; habitat loss, unscientific handling of snakes by snake catchers and charmers, and netting by fisherman contributes to snake mortality to a large extent; 72 % killed snakes are of poisonous varieties, 60 % of which are B. caeruleus, the most venomous snake in Sundarban. This paper is an attempt to highlight some of the important conservation efforts like the introduction of snake firms, alternative employment channels for the snake charmers and catchers, and mass awareness campaign through panchayet (village level governing body) and local NGOs.

Abstract: Naja sumatrana is the dominant cobra species in Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, and Sumatra, and it does not have specific antivenom. The Haffkine antivenom has been advocated instead. This study aims to determine the efficacy of this antivenom against Naja sumatrana envenoming using a mouse model. Methods. Male Swiss albino mice were used. Intravenous LD50 was first determined separately for Naja naja and Naja sumatrana venom. ED50 was determined by preincubating antivenom with each venom at 2.5 LD50 before administering the mixture into the tail vein. Validation was carried out using a challenge test. Each mouse received 111 µg of Naja sumatrana venom intramuscularly followed by intraperitoneal administration of dilute Haffkine antivenom. Survival was recorded 24 hours after envenoming. Results. The LD50 of Naja naja venom was 78.13 µg, standard error (SE) 13.3 µg. The ED50 of the Haffkine antivenom against Naja naja venom was 45.9 mg, SE 7.5 mg. The LD50 and ED50 of Naja sumatrana venom were 55.5 µg, SE 12.0 µg; and 73.9 mg, SE 12.0 mg, respectively. The intra-peritoneal ED50 against 111 µg intramuscular Naja sumatrana venom was 136.95 mg, SE 36.74 mg. Conclusion. The Haffkine polyvalent antivenom exhibited cross-neutralisation against Naja sumatrana venom when used at a higher dose.

Abstract: The present study investigated the types and prevalence of parasites and bacteria isolates of snakes captured in the northern (N) and southern guinea savannah zones (SGSZ) of Nigeria during the wet season. Nine different snake species were identified among 100 snakes captured. 58% were Naja spp. and 16% Pseudohaje goldii, captured mainly in the NGSZ. Bitis arietans and Pseudohaje goldii (8% each) were common in the SGSZ. Ectoparasites were found in 29% of the snakes captured with Aponomma (amblyomma) latum been the most common. 34% of the snake were infested with endoparasites with Coccidia (42%) and Strongyloides (22%) been the most common. Haemoparasites were found in 74% of the snakes, of which Haemogragerina (61%) was the most common. Different bacteria isolates were found in 92% of the snakes. In conclusion, Naja spp. was the most common snake found and the snakes were infected / infested with bacteria and parasites.

Abstract: A sandwich enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect Indian cobra ( Naja naja naja ) venom in various organs (brain, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, blood, site of injection and kidneys) as well as tissue at the site of injection of mice, at various time intervals (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 h intervals up to 24 h) after venom injection. Antiserum significantly neutralized venom levels in serum and tissue samples. Whole venom antiserum or individual venom protein anti serum (14 kDa, 29 kDa, 65 kDa, 72 kDa and 99 kDa) of venom could recognize Naja naja venom by Western blotting and ELISA, and Naja naja naja venom presented antibody titer when assayed by ELISA. The assay could detect Naja naja naja venom levels up to 2.5 ng/ml of tissue homogenate and the venom was detected up to 24 h after venom injection. A highly sensitive and species-specifc microtitre ELISA was also developed to detect venoms of four medically important Indian snakes ( Naja naja naja ) in autopsy specimens of mice. Venoms were detected in brain, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, tissue at the bite area and blood. As observed in mice, tissue at the site of bite area showed the highest concentration of venom and the brain showed the least. Moderate amounts of venoms were found in liver, spleen, kidneys, heart and lungs. Development of a simple, rapid and species-specifc diagnostic kit based on this ELISA technique useful to clinicians is discussed.

Abstract: Only seven types of mammals are known to be venomous, including slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.). Despite the evolutionary significance of this unique adaptation amongst Nycticebus, the structure and function of slow loris venom is only just beginning to be understood. Here we review what is known about the chemical structure of slow loris venom. Research on a handful of captive samples from three of eight slow loris species reveals that the protein within slow loris venom resembles the disulphide-bridged heterodimeric structure of Fel-d1, more commonly known as cat allergen. In a comparison of N. pygmaeus and N. coucang, 212 and 68 compounds were found, respectively. Venom is activated by combining the oil from the brachial arm gland with saliva, and can cause death in small mammals and anaphylactic shock and death in humans. We examine four hypotheses for the function of slow loris venom. The least evidence is found for the hypothesis that loris venom evolved to kill prey. Although the venom’s primary function in nature seems to be as a defense against parasites and conspecifics, it may also serve to thwart olfactory-orientated predators. Combined with numerous other serpentine features of slow lorises, including extra vertebra in the spine leading to snake-like movement, serpentine aggressive vocalisations, a long dark dorsal stripe and the venom itself, we propose that venom may have evolved to mimic cobras (Naja sp.). During the Miocene when both slow lorises and cobras migrated throughout Southeast Asia, the evolution of venom may have been an adaptive strategy against predators used by slow lorises as a form of Mullerian mimicry with spectacled cobras.

Abstract: Acidic phospholipase A2 (NND-IV-PLA2) was isolated from Naja naja (Southern India) venom, was purified by anion and cation exchange chromatog. The acidic PLA2 profile of eastern and southern region venom is distinctly different from that of the western regional venom, southern regional acidic phospholipase A2 did not induce myotoxicity or anticoagulant activity and didn't induced edema. However, the acidic PLA2 from all the regions follow the pattern of increasing catalytic activity with increase in the acidic nature of the PLA2 isoforms. [on SciFinder(R)]