Abstract: Objective To determine the pattern of oral bacterial flora and their sensitivity to antibiotics in freshly captured native snakes in Hong Kong SAR, People9s Republic of China. Methods Healthy native snakes were captured and kept in a designated centre. Snake species were identified by experienced herpetologists. Mouth swabs were taken by the veterinarian using strict aseptic techniques. The snakes were released back to the wild immediately after the above procedure. Swabs were sent for microbiological studies of bacterial culture and antibiotic sensitivity. Results 47 venomous snakes of the families Colubridae , Elapidae and Viperidae and 53 non-medically important snakes were captured. 406 bacterial isolates of 72 different species were cultured: these included Gram negative and positive bacterial species and also anaerobic bacterial species. With the exception of the white-lipped pit viper ( Cryptelytrops albolabris ), venomous snakes harboured more pathogenic bacteria and total bacteria species compared to the non-medically important species. Of the venomous snakes, the Chinese cobra ( Naja atra ) harboured the largest number of bacterial species. In the present study, all Gram negative bacteria associated with wound infection were sensitive to levofloxacin, netilmicin and piperacillin/tazobactam. Many Gram negative bacteria in the study were not sensitive to cefuroxime axetil. Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid was an appropriate choice to cover Enterococcus faecalis and anaerobes. Conclusion In the presence of wound infection from snakebite injury in Hong Kong, first line empirical antibiotics include amoxicillin/clavulanic acid plus levofloxacin. Prophylactic antibiotics may be considered in selected cases of Chinese cobra ( N atra ) bite, otherwise prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended in snakebite unless tissue necrosis is present.

Abstract: The lethal and enzymatic activities of venom from Naja sumatrana (Equatorial spitting cobra) were determined and compared to venoms from three other Southeast Asian cobras (Naja sputatrix, Naja siamensis and Naja kaouthia). All four venoms exhibited the common characteristic enzymatic activities of Asiatic cobra venoms: low protease, phosphodiesterase, alkaline phosphomonoesterase and L-amino acid oxidase activities, moderately high acetylcholinesterase and hyaluronidase activities and high phospholipase A2. Fractionation of N. sumatrana venom by Resource® S cation exchange chromatography (GE Healthcare, USA) yielded nine major protein peaks, with all except the acidic protein peak being lethal to mice. Most of the protein peaks exhibit enzymatic activities, and L-amino acid oxidase, alkaline phosphomonoesterase, acetylcholinesterase, 5'-nucleotidase and hyaluronidase exist in multiple forms. Comparison of the Resource® S chromatograms of the four cobra venoms clearly indicates that the protein composition of N. sumatrana venom is distinct from venoms of the other two spitting cobras, N. sputatrix (Javan spitting cobra) and N. siamensis (Indochinese spitting cobra). The results support the revised systematics of the Asiatic cobra based on multivariate analysis of morphological characters. The three spitting cobra venoms exhibit two common features: the presence of basic, potentially pharmacologically active phospholipases A2 and a high content of polypeptide cardiotoxin, suggesting that the pathophysiological actions of the three spitting cobra venoms may be similar.

Abstract: Capillary permeability increasing (CPI) activity is a phenomenon of the microvasculature caused by many agents such as snake venoms, histamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Since no systematic study has been done to determine what components of snake venom cause CPI activity, a CPI factor from Naja naja atra (Taiwan cobra) venom was isolated using intravenous injections of Evan's blue dye as the indicator of increased permeability and the factor's properties were extensively studied. Cardiotoxin from Naja naja kaouthia (Thailand cobra) and Mojave toxin from Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (Mojave rattlesnake) venoms demonstrated CPI activity. Postsynaptic neurotoxins from an elapid and a hydrophid and myotoxin a from Crotalus viridis viridis (prairie rattlesnake) showed no CPI activity at the dose studied. The purified CPI active component from Naja naja atra venom was found to have cardiotoxic activity. Therefore, Elapidae cardiotoxins are CPI active factors. However, CPI activity is not due to cardiotoxins alone as the presynaptic neurotoxin, Mojave toxin, also showed CPI activity. Selective inhibitors were used to indicate possible mechanisms of action on the capillaries by Naja naja atra venom and Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus venom. The histamine H1-receptor blockers diphenhydramine, promethazine, and cyproheptadine were effective against both venoms in preventing increased capillary permeability. These results suggested that histamine release activity is the most likely mechanism resulting in CPI activity from these venoms.

Abstract: A primary survey on herpetofauna was conducted by specimen collecting and interviewing in campus of Hechi University,central Guangxi,during July 2008 to December 2009.Totally 26 species were detected in this survey.Among them,6 species of 4 families,1 order belonged to the class Amphibia,and 20 species of 7 families,2 orders belonged to the class Reptilia.The dominant Amphibia is Polypedates leucomystax,and the dominant Reptilia is Rhabdphis subminiatus,Naja atra and Eumeces chinensis.6 species of 12 snakes are vipers in the campus,and Naja atra is the most dangerous.The Amphibia depend on running water have already disappeared along with urbanization,and the species breeding or preying on the building,such as Polypedates leucomystax,Naja atra and Hemidactylus bowringii,can adapt the habitat of urban.

Abstract: PCR amplification was conducted for genome DNA pool of Guangxi Naja naja atra using 30 random primers.18 random primers were selected to amplify genome DNA of Guangxi Naja naja atra.The results showed that 257 loci were detected,152 of which(59.14%) were polymorphic.The genetic similarity index and average genetic distance were 0.8186 and 0.1814,respectively.The Shannon index and Nei's gene diversity were 0.3170 and 0.2112,respectively.The alleles observed number and effective numbers of alleles were 1.3563 and 1.5914,respectively.The research results showed that there was relatively higher genetic diversity in Guangxi Naja naja atra.

Abstract: Objective To explore the effect of ethanol on the toxicity of Naja naja atra(Chinese cobra) venom.Methods The mice were given by subcutaneous injection(s.i) or oral administration the different concentrations of lethal dose of cobra venom which treated with different concentrations of ethanol in vitro.After the mice had been given the lethal dose of venom by s.i,the ethanol was immediately injected into the local.Their toxicity of cobra venom and effect of ethanol was observed.Results After used the lethal dose of cobra venom by s.i,the local treated immediately with 50%~75% ethanol 0.1 ~0.2 ml,that had a protective effect.Oral 100 times(s.i) lethal dose of cobra venom was not found to have toxic performance.Oral 100 times(s.i) lethal dose of cobra venom treated with 50% ethanol did not increase mortality of mice.Conclusion After cobra venom treated with ethanol in vitro the toxicity is decreased.Oral administration of small amounts of cobra venom is safe.When the cobra venom mixed with ethanol the toxicity is not to increase.

Abstract: The enzyme L-Amino Acid Oxidase (LAAO) is widely distributed in snake venoms, contributes a reasonable toxicity to the venoms. However LAAO from Indian cobra (Naja naja) snake venom has not yet isolated previously. In the present study LAAO from Indian cobra (Naja naja) snake venom was purified by sequential steps of cation exchange chromatography (CM-Sephadex C-25; CM-52 cellulose), followed by sephadex G-100 gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme was named as Indian Cobra Naja naja L- Amino Acid Oxidase (ICN-LAAO). This ICN-LAAO is a monomer and its molecular mass has been found to be 61.91 kDa determined by MALDI-TOF and 12% SDS-PAGE. The enzyme has an isoelcetric point of 8.12 and a pH optimum of 8.5. It shows remarkable ther mal stability and partial inactivation by freezing. The enzyme may contribute in the development of severe hematological disorder due to cobra venom envenomation.

Abstract: Wild-caught snakes are a popular and traditional food in China. However, little known to the public, snakes are also intermediate hosts of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, a food- and water-borne pathogen of sparganosis. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of S. erinaceieuropaei in 10 popular species of wild-caught snakes in Guangzhou City (Guangdong Province) between July 2009 and July 2010. One hundred and twenty-four specimens of 10 species (including Enhydris plumbea, Zoacys dhumnades, Elaphe radiate, Elaphe taeniura, Elaphe carinata, Ptyas mucosus, Ptyas korros, Naja naja atra, Bungarus fasciatus, and Bungarus multicinctus) were randomly selected from a total of 1,160 wild-caught snakes. They were obtained from food markets in 5 representative districts (Huadou, Panyu, Tianhe, Haizhu, and Conghua). The specimens were killed, necropsied, and examined for parasitic helminths. Of the snakes examined, 29.8% were infected by spargana and the worm burden per infected snake ranged from 1 to 221. Most species were infected except for En. plumbea, B. fasciatus, and B. multicinctus. Prevalence even reached 100% in Zoacys dhumnades. More than half (53.5%) of the spargana were located in muscular tissue, 36.4% in subcutaneous tissue, and 10.1% in the coelomic cavity. The study revealed the potential risk for the zoonotic sparganosis by eating wild-caught snakes and will be helpful in arousing public health concern about the consumption of snake meat.

Abstract: In total, 167 individuals of 30 species of snakes belonging to 22 genera and five families were examined for tick infestation from November 2008 to March 2010. Only two species of snakes, Ptyas mucosa (L., 1758) (Indian rat snake) and Naja naja (L., 1758) (spectacled cobra), were found infested by ticks. All ticks collected were identified to be Amblyomma gervaisi [previously Aponomma gervaisi (Lucas, 1847) 1. The average prevalence of these ticks on Indian rat snakes (n=48) was 29.16%, with abundance of 7.02 ticks per individual; on spectacled cobras (n=20), average prevalence was 30.00%, with abundance of 6.9 ticks per individual. The nymphs and males were predominant. All the ticks were found on the dorsal aspect of the body of the snake, and no ticks were recorded on the head, tail, or ventral body. The rate of tick infestation was highest in scrubland and was lowest in evergreen forests. Female Indian rat snakes showed higher tick infestation rates than male Indian rat snakes. Using Mann-Whitney U test, we found that longer snakes of both species had significantly higher rate of tick infestation in both the species of snakes.