Topic
Lithification
About: Lithification is a research topic. Over the lifetime, 897 publications have been published within this topic receiving 34101 citations.
Papers published on a yearly basis
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Papers
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a taxonomic classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates, based on the time and place in which porosity is created or modified, which is important elements of a genetically oriented classification.
Abstract: Pore systems in sedimentary carbonates are generally complex in their geometry and genesis, and commonly differ markedly from those of sandstones. Current nomenclature and classifications appear inadequate for concise description or for interpretation of porosity in sedimentary carbonates. In this article we review current nomenclature, propose several new terms, and present a classification of porosity which stresses interrelations between porosity and other geologic features. The time and place in which porosity is created or modified are important elements of a genetically oriented classification. Three major geologic events in the history of a sedimentary carbonate form a practical basis for dating origin and modification of porosity, independent of the stage of lithification. These events are (1) creation of the sedimentary framework by clastic accumulation or accretionary precipitation (final deposition), (2) passage of a deposit below the zone of major influence by processes related to and operating from the deposition surface, and (3) passage of the sedimentary rock into the zone of influence by processes operating from an erosion surface (unconformity). The first event, final deposition, permits recognition of predepositional, depositional, and post epositional stages of porosity evolution. Cessation of final deposition is the most practical basis for distinguishing primary and secondary (postdepositional) porosity. Many of the key postdepositional changes in sedimentary carbonates and their pore systems occur near the surface, either very early in burial history or at a penultimate stage associated with uplift and erosion. Porosity created or modified at these times commonly can be differentiated. On the basis of the three major events heretofore distinguished, we propose to term the early burial stage "eogenetic," the late stage "telogenetic," and the normally very long intermediate stage "mesogenetic." These new terms are also applicable to process, zones of burial, or porosity formed in these times or zones (e.g., eogenetic ceme tation, mesogenetic zone, telogenetic porosity). The proposed classification is designed to aid in geologic description and interpretation of pore systems End_Page 207------------------------------ and their carbonate host rocks. It is a descriptive and genetic system in which 15 basic porosity types are recognized: seven abundant types (interparticle, intraparticle, intercrystal, moldic, fenestral, fracture, and vug), and eight more specialized types. Modifying terms are used to characterize genesis, size and shape, and abundance of porosity. The genetic modifiers involve (1) process of modification (solution, cementation, and internal sedimentation), (2) direction or stage of modification (enlarged, reduced, or filled), and (3) time of porosity formation (primary, secondary, predepositional, depositional, eogenetic, mesogenetic, and telogenetic). Used with the basic porosity type, these genetic modifiers permit explicit designation of porosity origin and evolution. Pore shapes are classed as irregular or regular, and the latter are subdivided into equant, tubular, and platy shapes. A grade scale for size of regular-shaped pores, utilizing the average diameter of equant or tubular pores and the width of platy pores, has three main classes: micropores (< 1/16 mm), mesopores (1/16-4 mm), and megapores (4-256 mm). Megapores and mesopores are divided further into small and large subclasses. Abundance is noted by percent volume and/or by ratios of porosity types. Most porosity in sedimentary carbonates can be related specifically to sedimentary or diagenetic components that constitute the texture or fabric (fabric-selective porosity). Some porosity cannot be related to these features. Fabric selectivity commonly distinguishes pore systems of primary and early postdepositional (eogenetic) origin from those of later (telogenetic) origin that normally form after extensive diagenesis has transformed the very porous assemblage of stable and unstable carbonate minerals into a much less porous aggregate of ordered dolomite and/or calcite. Porosity in most carbonate facies, including most carbonate petroleum reservoir rocks, is largely fabric selective.
1,790 citations
TL;DR: For example, in this article, the main component is dense, clotted or peloidal micrite resulting from calcification of bacterial cells, sheaths and biofilm, and from phytoplankton-stimulated whiting nucleation.
Abstract: Summary
Deposits produced by microbial growth and metabolism have been important components of carbonate sediments since the Archaean. Geologically best known in seas and lakes, microbial carbonates are also important at the present day in fluviatile, spring, cave and soil environments. The principal organisms involved are bacteria, particularly cyanobacteria, small algae and fungi, that participate in the growth of microbial biofilms and mats. Grain-trapping is locally important, but the key process is precipitation, producing reefal accumulations of calcified microbes and enhancing mat accretion and preservation. Various metabolic processes, such as photosynthetic uptake of CO2 and/or HCO3– by cyanobacteria, and ammonification, denitrification and sulphate reduction by other bacteria, can increase alkalinity and stimulate carbonate precipitation. Extracellular polymeric substances, widely produced by microbes for attachment and protection, are important in providing nucleation sites and facilitating sediment trapping.
Microbial carbonate microfabrics are heterogeneous. They commonly incorporate trapped particles and in situ algae and invertebrates, and crystals form around bacterial cells, but the main component is dense, clotted or peloidal micrite resulting from calcification of bacterial cells, sheaths and biofilm, and from phytoplankton-stimulated whiting nucleation. Interpretation of these texturally convergent and often inscrutable fabrics is a challenge. Conspicuous accumulations are large domes and columns with laminated (stromatolite), clotted (thrombolite) and other macrofabrics, which may be either agglutinated or mainly composed of calcified or spar-encrusted microbes. Stromatolite lamination appears to be primary, but clotted thrombolite fabrics can be primary or secondary. Microbial precipitation also contributes to hot-spring travertine, cold-spring mound, calcrete, cave crust and coated grain deposits, as well as influencing carbonate cementation, recrystallization and replacement. Microbial carbonate is biologically stimulated but also requires favourable saturation state in ambient water, and thus relies uniquely on a combination of biotic and abiotic factors. This overriding environmental control is seen at the present day by the localization of microbial carbonates in calcareous streams and springs and in shallow tropical seas, and in the past by temporal variation in abundance of marine microbial carbonates. Patterns of cyanobacterial calcification and microbial dome formation through time appear to reflect fluctuations in seawater chemistry.
Stromatolites appeared at ∼3450 Ma and were generally diverse and abundant from 2800 to 1000 Ma. Inception of a Proterozoic decline variously identified at 2000, 1000 and 675 Ma, has been attributed to eukaryote competition and/or reduced lithification. Thrombolites and dendrolites mainly formed by calcified cyanobacteria became important early in the Palaeozoic, and reappeared in the Late Devonian. Microbial carbonates retained importance through much of the Mesozoic, became scarcer in marine environments in the Cenozoic, but locally re-emerged as large agglutinated domes, possibly reflecting increased algal involvement, and thick micritic reef crusts in the late Neogene. Famous modern examples at Shark Bay and Lee Stocking Island are composite coarse agglutinated domes and columns with complex bacterial–algal mats occurring in environments that are both stressed and current-swept: products of mat evolution, ecological refugia, sites of enhanced early lithification or all three?
1,480 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a survey was made of framboid size distributions in recently deposited sediments from euxinic (Black Sea; Framvaren Fjord, Norway; Pettaquamscutt River Estuary, Rhode Island, USA), dysoxic (Peru Margin), and oxic (Wallops Island, Virginia, USA; Great Salt Marsh, Delaware, USA) environments.
1,072 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that growth of modern marine stromatolites represents a dynamic balance between sedimentation and intermittent lithification of cyanobacterial mats, and may be applicable to ancient strom atolites.
Abstract: For three billion years, before the Cambrian diversification of life, laminated carbonate build-ups called stromatolites were widespread in shallow marine seas. These ancient structures are generally thought to be microbial in origin and potentially preserve evidence of the Earth's earliest biosphere. Despite their evolutionary significance, little is known about stromatolite formation, especially the relative roles of microbial and environmental factors in stromatolite accretion. Here we show that growth of modern marine stromatolites represents a dynamic balance between sedimentation and intermittent lithification of cyanobacterial mats. Periods of rapid sediment accretion, during which stromatolite surfaces are dominated by pioneer communities of gliding filamentous cyanobacteria, alternate with hiatal intervals. These discontinuities in sedimentation are characterized by development of surface films of exopolymer and subsequent heterotrophic bacterial decomposition, forming thin crusts of microcrystalline carbonate. During prolonged hiatal periods, climax communities develop, which include endolithic coccoid cyanobacteria. These coccoids modify the sediment, forming thicker lithified laminae. Preservation of lithified layers at depth creates millimetre-scale lamination. This simple model of modern marine stromatolite growth may be applicable to ancient stromatolites.
778 citations
TL;DR: Evaluated community metabolism in microbial mats is evaluated and hypothesize why these organosedimentary biofilms sometimes lithify and sometimes do not, and what factors determine precipitation.
753 citations
Related Topics (5)
Performance Metrics
| Year | Papers |
|---|---|
| 2025 | 11 |
| 2024 | 12 |
| 2023 | 23 |
| 2022 | 32 |
| 2021 | 25 |
| 2020 | 17 |