Holiness code

Abstract: Israel Knohl offers a new perspective on the history and theology of the Priestly source of the Pentateuch. By means of an analysis of specific texts - for example, those that deal with the Sabbath and the Festivals - Knohl demonstrates the existence of two separate priestly sources, loosely connected with what we have known as P and the Holiness Code. The "Holiness School" is shown to be active subsequent to that of the Priestly Torah and, in fact, to be responsible for the great enterprise of editing the Torah. Knohl examines the conceptions of divinity and ritual reflected in priestly thought and legislation in ancient Israel and the changes revealed in these conceptions over time. The Priesthood appears as an elite, closeted within the walls of the "Sanctuary of Silence, " drawn toward the hidden, noble divinity ensconced within its shrine. The later stratum of Priestly writings expresses a desire to transcend the limits of the temple and go out into the broad avenues of the nation, even at the price of surrendering the loftiness of earlier faith and practice. The conclusion describes the changes that occurred in the Priests' worldview as an attempt to come to terms with the socio-religious crisis that had brought about a disjunction between ritual and ethics. In response to this crisis, the priests developed a wider conception of holiness, one that integrates ethics and ritual in one sphere.

Abstract: This first full-scale account of Leviticus by a world-renowned anthropologist presents the biblical work as a literary masterpiece. Seen in an anthropological perspective Leviticus has a mystical structure which plots the book into three parts corresponding to the three parts of the desert tabernacle, which in turn corresponds to the parts of Mount Sinai. This completely new reading transforms the interpretation of the purity laws. The pig and other forbidden animals are not abhorrent, they command the same respect due to all God's creatures. Boldly challenging several traditions of Bible criticism, Mary Douglas claims that Leviticus is not the narrow doctrine of a crabbed professional priesthood but a powerful intellectual statement about a religion which emphasizes God's justice and compassion.

Abstract: Homoeroticism in the Biblical World: A Historical Perspective, by Martti Nissinen. Translated by Kirsi Stjerna. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998. Pp. vii + 208. $24.00. For its brevity and accessibility, Martti Nissinen's book on same-sex eroticism is remarkably global-geographically and chronologically. Where else can one find a convenient study of primary texts on homoeroticism from Mesopotamia, the Hebrew Bible, classical antiquity, Judaism, and the NT? The subtitle notwithstanding, the interest is not purely historical. Hermeneutical concerns emerge in an introduction on modern explanations of homosexuality and gender, and in a conclusion that considers how problematic it is to correlate ancient and modern understandings of homoeroticism. Thus, the discussion of ancient texts stands under the question of how it is possible to make comparisons between different cultures and different ages. Ten illustrative plates, an appendix on "Creation, Nature, and Gender Identity," and extensive annotation complete the book. Nissinen, Reader in OT at the University of Helsinki, appropriately establishes precise terminology and cautions against equating modern and ancient issues. Homosexuality designates homosexual orientation, and homoerotic designates sexual interaction between members of the same sex. A discussion of attempts to explain sexuality as inborn (essentialist) or as a product of social relations (constructionist) ends conventionally in a stalemate, without diminishing its importance for both author and reader. The book maintains that gender is a social construct. Thus, the gender of sexual partners inevitably presupposes social roles. The chapter on Mesopotamia includes a brief reference to Egyptian mythology, in which Seth's sexual abuse of Horns demonstrates his dominance. More germane is the love between two males in the Epic of Gilgamesh (though Gilgamesh and Enkidu are more than human). But Nissinen interprets this relationship as a rejection of a world that includes females for masculine asceticism. A discussion of Middle Assyrian Laws indicates that male homoeroticism is regulated on analogy with adultery, though penetrating a social equal shames him by implying altered gender roles. On the other hand, Assyrian omens indicate that a male who penetrates another gains dominance. Pertinent also is IStar's gender ambiguity (masculine as a morning star, feminine as an evening star) and a cultic functionary known as assinnus, who played ambiguous gender roles, perhaps including castration. These roles were, however, more asexual than homoerotic. Little novel appears in the discussion of texts from the Hebrew Bible. Nissinen locates the texts in their socio-historical setting (the Holiness Code is postexilic) and employs comparative history of religions. He emphasizes the dearth of evidence for explaining why the Holiness Code prohibits sexual acts between males but also suggests that cultic purity was driven by ancient (antiquated?) taboo linked with a strategy to maintain communal identity. Sodom and the Levite's wife (Judg 19) receive the now commonplace explanations that hospitality is violated. Additionally, sexual infractions in these stories manifest domination. Taking "seeing nakedness" as a euphemism for sexual intercourse, Nissinen interprets Ham's curse as a result of a homoerotic act that reverses Noah's sexual role. Given the equality of David and Jonathan (neither is active with respect to a passive other), their relationship is evaluated as homosocial rather than homoerotic. The longest chapter is devoted to classical antiquity. Greek and Roman male homoeroticism are distinct enough to merit separate discussions. In Greek culture pederasty (an unequal relationship between a pubescent boy and a mature man who cannot automatically be equated with modem homosexuals) did not challenge social norms and was viewed as normal in the development of youths. As is well known, Plato evaluated pederasty as superior to marriage. …