Foreign relations

Abstract: Preface A note about the revised edition Introduction 1. Provocations of our time 2. Rethinking foreign policy 3. Foreign policy and identity 4. Foreign policy and difference 5. Imagining America 6. Writing security 7. Rewriting security 8. The politics of theorizing identity Epilogue: The disciplinary politics of theorising identity

Abstract: " Hauser. op. cit. p. iv. " Times (I.ondrmV June 23, 1916, editorial. " Julieii Bcnda, La trahison des clercs (Paris, 1927), p. 72. 6o National Power and Foreign Trade T h u s , P r e z i o s i w a n t e d t o b u i l d u p s t r o n g I t a l i a n i n d u s t r i e s s o t h a t t h e y m a y " i n t h e i r o w n t i m e p r a c t i c e d u m p i n g , t u r n i n g a g a i n s t the G e r m a n s t h e i r o w n f a v o r i t e w e a p o n s . " " S i m i l a r l y , h e w i s h e d t o f r e e t h e B a n c a C o m m e r c i a l e f r o m G e r m a n i n f l u e n c e b e c a u s e " t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m h a s to b e o n e of t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h t h e s t a t e h a s a t i t s d i s p o s a l i n o r d e r t o d i r e c t i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c c o r d i n g t o i t s o w n a i m s . " " T h u s , i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o b e i n f o r m e d b y t h e Enciclopedia Italiana t h a t P r e z i o s i e a r l y j o i n e d t h e F a s c i s t p a r t y a n d h a d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of i ts e c o n o m i c p r o g r a m b e f o r e t h e m a r c h o n R o m e . I n a m o r e b a l a n c e d f a s h i o n , H a u s e r m a d e a d i s t i n c t i o n i n h i s final c h a p t e r b e t w e e n " w h a t w e s h a l l n o t i m i t a t e f r o m G e r m a n y " a n d " w h a t w e s h a l l h a v e t o i m i t a t e . " T h i s s h o w s r a t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e w h o l e p r o b l e m w a s r a i s e d . B u t i n s p i t e o f h i s m o d e r a t e p o s i t i o n — h e r e j e c t e d t h e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e G e r m a n m e t h o d s , s u c h a s d u m p i n g , a n d d i d n o t f a v o r a c o m p l e t e b o y c o t t o f G e r m a n y a f t e r t h e w a r ' s e n d — h e a d v o c a t e d a n " e c o n o m i c o f f e n s i v e " e v e n a f t e r t h e w a r a s t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e a n s w e r t o G e r m a n m e t h o d s . ^ T h e s e i n s t a n c e s suffice t o s h o w t h e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f a c u r r e n t o f t h o u g h t w h i c h r e c e i v e d i t s p r a c t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n a n d off icial c o n s e c r a t i o n a t t h e P a r i s E c o n o m i c C o n f e r e n c e . T h i s w a s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e o n l y A l l i e d c o n f e r e n c e d u r i n g t h e w a r a t w h i c h p r o b l e m s of p o s t w a r e c o n o m i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w e r e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A s h o r t s u r v e y o f i t s r e s o l u t i o n s a n d i t s i n f l u e n c e u p o n l a t e r e v e n t s s e e m s t h e r e f o r e t o b e w a r r a n t e d . ^ T h e r e s o l u t i o n s a d o p t e d b y s i x A l l i e d n a t i o n s — E n g l a n d , F r a n c e , I t a l y , R u s s i a , B e l g i u m , J a p a n — f e l l i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : m e a s u r e s fo r t h e w a r p e r i o d ; m e a s u r e s fo r t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d a f t e r t h e w a r ; a n d p e r m a n e n t m e a s u r e s . T h e a i m o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e i s c l e a r l y s t a t e d i n t h e p r e a m b l e t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n s : T h e representa t ives of the A l l i e d g o v e r n m e n t s . . . dec l a re that , after forc ing u p o n t h e m the m i l i t a r y contest in sp i te of al l the efforts to a v o i d the conflict, the E m p i r e s of C e n t r a l E u r o p e are today p r e p a r i n g , in concert wi th their a l l ies , for a contest on the e c o n o m i c p l a n e , which will no t 1' Preziosi, op. cit., p. 43. 5" Preziosi, op. cit., p, 58, Hauser, op. cit., p. ix. ^For a history of the genesis of the conference, see Etienne CliJmentel, La France et la Politique Economique Interalliee (Paris-New Haven, 1931), pp. 74-78. Theoretical and Historical Aspects 6 1 onJy survive the reestabljshment of peace, but will at that moment attain its full scope and intensity. T h e y cannot therefore conceal from themselves that the agreements which are being prepared for this purpose between their enemies have the obvious object of establishing the domination of the latter over the produclion and the markets of the whole world and of imposing on other countries an intolerable yoke. In the face of so great a peril, the representatives of the All ied governments consider that it has become their duty, on grounds of necessary and legitimate defense, to adopt and realize from now onward all the measures requisite on the one hand to secure for themselves and for the whole of the markets of neutral couniries full economic independence and respect for sound commercial practice and, on the other hand, to facilitate the organization on a permanent basis of their economic alliance.^ I n this p r e a m b l e t!ie spirit w h i c h d o m i n a t e d the conference becomes c lear . T h e e c o n o m i c sovere ignty , e v e n of the defeated e n e m y , is not quest ioned, and it is supposed that e c o n o m i c war wi l l c o n t i n u e after the e n d of mil i tary war , U n d e r this assumption the m a i n preoccupat ion of the Al l ies b e c a m e " e c o n o m i c defense ," w h i c h is very often indist inguishable from e c o n o m i c warfaie.'^ W e are interested here i n the resolutions of the conference only so far as they deal w i t h the transit ion p e r i o d o r wi th the p e r m a n e n t arrangements after the war. T h e s e sections, r e p r o d u c e d in A p p e n d i x B, should be read in their entirety. I n d e e d , they m a k e famil iar reading. O n e after a n o t h e r ^ve find e n u m e r a t e d all the f u n d a m e n t a l policies of refined e c o n o m i c nat ional ism w i t h w h i c h w e have b e c o m e so ivell a c q u a i n t e d in the per iod b e t w e e n the t w o wars—restricted access to raw materials a n d resources, preferent ia l treatments a n d discr iminat ions, restrictions on the activit ies of aliens, a n t i d u m p i n g legislation, differential transport rates, autarky, not only w i t h respect to key industries, b u t on a practical ly universal scale by means ' ^ Q u o t e d f rom H . W. V. T e m p c r l e y , A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, Vol, V { L o n d o n , 1921), p . 3G7. »• Le Teji\f)s h a d a s o m e w h a t Iv ikcwa im a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e conference a n d s h o w e d the a b s u r d i t y of this pos i t ion even f rom a n a t i o n a l i s t i c po int of view, " W e think that the m a i n e c o n o m i c task of the C o n f e r e n c e is not to e l a b o r a t e this m o d e s t r^ply to a pro jec t which is a s s u m e d to be a l r eady rea l ized , b u t on the contrary by all m e a n s to prevent the rea l i za t ion of this pro jec t a n d Ihe f o r m a t i o n of this M i t t e l e u r o p a , a l t h o u g h s o m e per sons a p j i a r e n t l v w o u l d l ike to confine themse lves l o p r e p a r i n g a sh ie ld a g a i n s t its b lows . "—/.e Temps, Jime 15, 191C. 62 National Power and Foreign Trade o f s u b s i d i e s , tar i f fs , p r o h i b i t i o n s , e tc . E v e n a c u r s o r y v i e w of t h i s a m a z i n g P a n d o r a ' s b o x r a i s e s d o u b t s w h e t h e r t h e s e m e a s u r e s w e r e d e v i s e d for d e f e n s e o n l y . T h e P a r i s R e s o l u t i o n s w e r e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a b a s i c p r o g r a m . E a c h of t h e A l l i e s p r o m i s e d t o w o r k o u t i ts o w n p r o g r a m i n t e r m s of n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . E a c h , f u r t h e r m o r e , w a s t o b e i n f o r m e d o f the p r o g r a m d e c i s i o n s o f t h e o t h e r . T h e a g r e e m e n t h a d n o t b e e n r e a c h e d ea s i ly . T h e F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h d e l e g a t i o n s m e t w i t h s o m e res i s ta n c e f r o m the R u s s i a n a n d I t a h a n d e l e g a t i o n s . B e f o r e t h e w a r t h e t w o l a t t e r c o u n t r i e s h a d r e l i e d h e a v i l y o n t h e G e r m a n m a r k e t a n d v i e w e d w i t h s o m e a p p r e h e n s i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of G e r m a n re p r i s a l s . T h e R u s s i a n d e l e g a t e s o p p o s e d t h e p e r i o d o f five y e a r s w h i c h h a d b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e E n g l i s h d e l e g a t i o n a s t h e m i n i m u m p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h G e r m a n y w a s t o b e e x c l u d e d f r o m m o s t f a v o r e d n a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ; R u s s i a o b t a i n e d t h e m u c h v a g u e r w o r d i n g " f o r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s t o b e fixed by m u t u a l a g r e e m e n t . " ^ T h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , h o w e v e r , w a s m a i n l y f e a r f u l les t t o o i n t i m a t e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e A l l i e s o n p o s t w a r e c o n o m i c p o l i c y m i g h t , b y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l tar i f fs , r e s t r i c t R u s s i a ' s c o n t e m p l a t e d fu l l u s e o f e c o n o m i c s o v e r e i g n t y . T h i s is evid e n t f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t a l i n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e d e l e g a t e s , w h i c h u n d e r l i n e d " t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a t h o r o u g h g o i n g , u n h i n d e r e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f o u r p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o n a s l a r g e a s c a l e a s w i l l b e p r a c t i c a b l e of o u r v a s t n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . . . . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e e n s l a v e m e n t o f o u r i n d u s t r y b y f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s a n d t o m a k e it a b s o l u t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t w e m u s t , a s a j u s t m e a s u r e , c r e a t e a u t o n o m o u s tar i f fs , w h e r e t h e tarif f o n g o o d s is n o t fixed b y a g r e e m e n t w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c

Abstract: The international system is not only an expression of domestic structures, but a cause of them. Two schools of analysis exploring the impact of the international system upon domestic politics (regime types, institutions, coalitions, policies) may be distinguished: those which stress the international economy, and those which stress political-military rivalry, or war. Among the former are such arguments as: late industrialization (associated with Gershenkron); dependencia or core-periphery arguments (Wallerstein); liberal development model (much American writing in the 50s and 60s); transnational relation-modernization (Nye, Keohane, Morse); neo-mercantilists (Gilpin); state-centered Marxists (Schurmann). Arguments stressing the role of war include those which focus on the organizational requirements of providing security (Hintze, Anderson), the special nature of foreign relations (classical political theory), territorial compensation (diplomatic history), and strains of foreign involvement (analysis of revolutions). These arguments provide the basis for criticism of much of the literature which uses domestic structure as an explanation of foreign policy, in particular those which (such as the strong-state weak-state distinction) tend, by excessive focus on forms, to obscure the connection between structures and interests, and the role of politics. These arguments also permit criticism of the notion of a recent fundamental discontinuity in the nature of international relations.