Abstract: A rationale for needs analysis and needs analysis research, Methodological issues in learner needs analysis, Language needs analysis at societal level, Foreign language needs assessment in the US military, Sources, methods and triangulation in needs analysis: A critical perspective in a case study of Waikiki hotel maids, Foreign language needs of business firms, Evaluating the use of multilple sources and methods in needs analysis: A case study of journalists in the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, A preliminary analysis of language provisions for foreign professional footballers in the Netherlands, A task-based needs analysis of a tertiary Korean as a foreign language program, Collecting target discourse: The case of the US naturalization interview, Service encounters in two coffee shops and at a coffee cart, When small talk is a big deal: scoiolinguistic challenges in the workplace

Abstract: For many decades, foreign language teaching has been dominated by the principle that teachers should use only the target language (TL) and avoid using the mother tongue (L1) except as a last resort. However, reports show that teachers make extensive use of the L1. This paper illustrates this discrepancy and considers some main reasons for it. It suggests a framework of principles for balancing L1 and TL use in the classroom. Finally, it reviews some strategies available to teachers who wish to make maximal use of the TL without denying the potential of the L1 to support foreign language learning.

Abstract: 1. Preface (by Cumming, Alister) 2. Introduction 3. Chapter 1. Situating the learning-to-write and writing-to-learn dimensions of L2 writing (by Manchon, Rosa M.) 4. Part I. Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn: Mapping the terrain 5. Chapter 2. Learning to write: Issues in theory, research, and pedagogy (by Hyland, Ken) 6. Chapter 3. Writing to learn in content areas: Research insights (by Hirvela, Alan) 7. Chapter 4. Writing to learn the language: Issues in theory and research (by Manchon, Rosa M.) 8. Part II. Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn: Research insights 9. Chapter 5. Learning to write in a second language: Multilingual graduates and undergraduates expanding genre repertories (by Leki, Ilona) 10. Chapter 6. Writing to learn and learning to write by shuttling between languages (by Canagarajah, Suresh) 11. Chapter 7. Beyond writing as language learning or content learning: Construing foreign language writing as meaning-making (by Byrnes, Heidi) 12. Chapter 8. The language learning potential of form-focused feedback on writing: Students' and teachers' perceptions (by Hyland, Fiona) 13. Chapter 9. Writing to learn in FL contexts: Exploring learners' perceptions of the language learning potential of L2 writing (by Manchon, Rosa M.) 14. Chapter 10. Exploring the learning potential of writing development in heritage language education (by Hedgcock, John) 15. Conclusion 16. Chapter 11. Reflections on the learning-to-write and writing-to-learn dimensions of second language writing (by Ortega, Lourdes) 17. Contributors' biodata 18. Authors index 19. Thematic index

Abstract: This article reports on a survey of heritage language learners (HLLs) across different heritage languages (HLs) and geographic regions in the United States. A general profile of HLLs emerges as a student who (1) acquired English in early childhood, after acquiring the HL; (2) has limited exposure to the HL outside the home; (3) has relatively strong aural and oral skills but limited literacy skills; (4) has positive HL attitudes and experiences; and (5) studies the HL mainly to connect with communities of speakers in the United States and to gain insights into his or her roots.We argue that a community-based curriculum represents an effective way to harness the wealth of knowledge and experiences that HLLs bring to the classroom and to respond to their goals for their HL. Key words: community-based curriculum, heritage language (HL), heritage language attitudes, heritage language learners (HLL), motivations Introduction A comparison of the U.S. Census Bureau data of the censuses of 1990 and 2000 as well as the Community Estimates of 2007 and 2008 reveals that this country has been experiencing an unprecedented increase in immigration, which results in an increase of speakers of languages other than English and correspondingly larger enrollments of ''heritage speakers'' of these languages in classes of world languages. For example, according to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey 1 figures of 2008, several languages posted significant increases in speakers in the past 20 years. Spanish (34,559,894), Chinese (2,465,761), Tagalog (1,488,385), Vietnamese (1,332,633), Korean (1,051,641), and Russian (864,069) are among these languages (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009, n.p.). This creates a steady stream of students who speak a language other than English at home and enroll in classes of world languages to gain literacy and improve or maintain their home languages. Instructors have been concerned with teaching these students who, as we show, may require a different curriculum because of their specific proficiencies. This article reports on a national survey of heritage language learners (HLLs) that aims to inform the design of curricula, materials, and professional development projects in the area of heritage language (HL) teaching.1 The survey offers an unprecedented look at the linguistic profiles, goals, and attitudes of college-level HLLs across different languages and geographic regions in the United States.2 The ever-growing presence of HLLs in foreign language departments has created an unprecedented need for this kind of information as well as for clarity regarding basic terms and issues surrounding HL teaching. Wiley (2001) explained the importance of the label ''heritage language learner'': The labels and definitions that we apply to heritage language learners are important, because they help to shape the status of the learners and the languages they are learning. Deciding on what types of learners should be included under the heritage language label raises a number of issues related to identity and inclusion and exclusion. . . . Some learners, with a desire to establish a connection with a past language, might not be speakers of that language yet. (p. 35) The labels applied to the learners and languages that fall under the domain of ''heritage language teaching'' vary considerably, depending on the importance assigned to learners' ability to speak the HL. Fishman (2001, p. 81) defined HLs ''as those that (a) are LOTEs (languages other than English) and that (b) have a particular family relevance to the learners.'' Van Deusen- Scholl (2003, p. 222) used the term ''learners with a heritage motivation'' in reference to those ''raised with a strong cultural connection to a particular language through family interaction.'' Hornberger and Wang (2008, p. 27) definedHLLs as ''individuals who have familial or ancestral ties to a particular language that is not English and who exert their agency in determining whether or not they are HLLs (heritage language learners) of that HL (heritage language) and HC (heritage community). …

Abstract: Motivation is a complex psychological construct regarded as one of the determinant factors in successful foreign language learning, which is why it regularly comes to the fore when trying to explain individual differences among language learners. In fact, one of the main objectives of many foreign language teachers in classrooms the world over is to increase student motivation, so that pupils may acquire a good command of English, the current main lingua franca. While many studies have been devoted to the role played by different orientations in this process, this paper focuses on the effect of the approach used in the foreign language classroom. Thus, attention is paid to the relationship between motivation and the language proficiency attained through two different approaches: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), among 191 secondary school students. The results confirm the benefits of CLIL from both a motivational and a language competence per...

Abstract: Perceived to be two important affective variables, anxiety and motivation have been found to be highly correlated to second/foreign language acquisition. In order to examine the relationship between foreign language anxiety, English learning motivation, and performance in English, the present study investigated 980 undergraduate students from three universities in China who answered a 76-item survey. Analyses of the data revealed that (1) the respondents generally did not feel anxious in English and were moderately motivated to learn English, (2) foreign language anxiety and English learning motivation were significantly negatively correlated with each other, and (3) both foreign language anxiety and English learning motivation were significantly correlated with students' performance in English. Among the scales, foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCAS), intrinsic motivation (IntrinM), instrumental motivation (InstruM), fear of being negatively evaluated (FLCAS1), and interest in foreign languages and cultures (IFLC) proved to be powerful predictors for the latter.

Abstract: In a review of research on the effectiveness of formal foreign language instruction, Ellis (2008: 855) observes that acquisition probably proceeds most rapidly through a combination of form-focused instruction and exposure to the target language. He also suggests that in studies that have compared classroom learners with ‘naturalistic’ learners, we can not be sure whether the advantages for classroom learners are due to formal instruction or access to comprehensible input in classroom language. While the jury remains out on the effectiveness of language instruction, the wise language learner might be well advised to seek out a combination of instruction and exposure to language input (Krashen 1985), as well as opportunities to produce language output (Swain 1985).

Abstract: InthenewEuropeanhighereducationspace,UniversitiesinEuropeareexhortedtocultivate and develop multilingualism. The European Commission's 2004-2006 action plan for promoting language learning and diversity speaks of the need to build an environment which is favourable to languages. Yet reality indicates that it is English which reigns supreme and has become the main foreign language used as means of instruction at European universities. Internationalisation has played a key role in this process, becoming one of the main drivers of the linguistic hegemony exerted by English. In this paper we examine the opinions of teaching staff involved in English-medium instruction, from pedagogical ecology- of-language and personal viewpoints. Data were gathered using group discussion. The study was conducted at a multilingual Spanish university where majority (Spanish), minority (Basque) and foreign (English) languages coexist, resulting in some unavoidable linguistic strains. The implications for English-medium instruction are discussed at the end of this paper.

Abstract: Over the last decade, Alternate Reality Games (ARGs), a form of narrative often involving multiple media and gaming elements to tell a story that might be affected by participants' actions, have been used in the marketing and promotion of a number of entertainment related products such as films, computer games and music. This paper discusses the design, development and evaluation of an ARG aimed at increasing the motivations of secondary school level students across Europe in the learning of modern foreign languages. The ARG was developed and implemented as part of a European Commission Comenius project and involved 6 project partners, 328 secondary school students and 95 language teachers from 17 European countries. The collaborative nature of ARGs provides a potentially useful vehicle for developing collaborative activities within an educational context. This paper describes the educational value of ARGs, in particular the ARG for supporting the teaching of modern European languages and the specific activities that were developed around Web 2.0 and gaming that underpinned the ARG and helped promote cooperation and learning within an educational environment. An evaluation of the ARG was conducted using an experimental design of pre-test -> ARG intervention -> post-test. 105 students completed the pre-test, 92 students completed the post-test and 45 students completed both the pre-test and post-test questionnaires. In general, student attitudes towards the ARG were very positive with evidence suggesting that the ARG managed to deliver the motivational experience expected by the students. The majority of students who completed the post-test either agreed or strongly agreed that they would be willing to play the game over a prolonged period of time as part of a foreign language course. In addition, through using the ARG, students believed that they obtained skills relating to cooperation, collaboration and teamwork.

Abstract: Testing of second language pragmatic competence is an underexplored but growing area of second language assessment. Tests have focused on assessing learners’ sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic abi...

Abstract: Although often neglected in language textbooks and classrooms, sociopragmatic and multiliteracy skills are crucial elements in language learning that language educators should not disregard. This article investigates whether a social networking community (SNC) website such as Facebook can be exploited in the context of an intermediate foreign language class to promote competent, literate L2 learners. Intermediate language learners had to search groups in Facebook that were linked to the course themes and conduct a linguistic analysis focusing on greetings, leave-takings, and vocabulary selection in order to identify the language typically used in this electronic environment. Findings suggest that over the course of a semester, learners honed in on and identified socio-pragmatic elements in this medium and that observation-based awareness-raising tasks are indeed beneficial for the development of socio-pragmatic competence.

Abstract: Within a European project on Networked Interaction in Foreign Language Acquisition and Research (NIFLAR), Second Life was used as a 3D virtual world in which language students can communicate synchronously with native speakers in the target language, while undertaking action together. For this context, a set of design principles for interaction tasks was developed aiming at maximizing authentic social interaction and intercultural awareness, while exploiting the specific affordances of the virtual environment being used. These design principles were applied and tested in a case study in which two foreign language learners of Spanish and two pre-service teachers carried out four interaction tasks in the virtual world of Second Life. In this article we first present and discuss the framework for task development and assessment. We then show the results of the case study conducted in Second Life which aimed at: (1) applying and assessing the design principles for task elaboration, (2) analyzing the kind of i...

Abstract: In Colombia, there is a tendency to focus on English-Spanish bilingualism at the expense of bilingualism in other foreign languages, or in indigenous languages. This article will argue that there is a need for an equitable language policy which includes all the languages and cultures represented in the country. In addition, we will consider how far bilingual education programmes for majority language speakers in Colombia today actively help towards the creation of a more tolerant society. We will end by indicating implications for future developments.

Abstract: In this paper we explore the relationship between English language proficiency and earnings in South Africa, using new data from the first wave of the National Income Dynamics panel survey of 2008. Much of the literature on this topic has studied the impact on earnings of host country language acquisition among minority groups of immigrants to developed countries. In our study we analyse the returns to language skills in a developing country context where the dominant language of business, government and education is that of the former colony, although not more than one percent of the African majority population group speaks English as their home language. Our findings suggest large returns among Africans to reading and writing English very well, and particularly among those who have a tertiary education. We also briefly consider the implications of these results for language and education policy in South Africa in the post-apartheid period.

Abstract: Virtual worlds are an emerging technology in computer-assisted learning. Due to the novelty of these new learning spaces, little research has been done on the use or the effects on students learning foreign languages. This research looks at how the use of the virtual world Second Life affects the motivation of students in an undergraduate Spanish course. Comparisons were made on responses to an attitude/motivation test battery completed by students enrolled in two sections of a beginning level undergraduate Spanish course. One section utilized Second Life as part of its instruction while the other section participated in traditional curriculum. Results demonstrate that virtual worlds could be a valuable resource to lower student anxiety and increase their motivation to learn a foreign language.

Abstract: The paper analyzes research published over the last five years. The first part looks into policy documents, types of programs, and surveys to identify (a) reasons why an early start to learning languages is seen as beneficial and under what conditions; (b) possible threats; and (c) the aims and expected outcomes that are predicted by various models. The second part discusses studies on learners, including what they do in classrooms, how they perform on tasks, how their languages interact, and how they develop in different skills. A separate section reviews individual differences in the affective, cognitive, and strategic domains, as well as the role of learners’ socioeconomic status and their learning difficulties. In the third part, we draw on classroom observation and interview studies to discuss teachers’ roles, proficiency and uses of languages, and beliefs and practices. In the fourth part, we focus on the assessment of young learners; more specifically, we review what the construct of assessment is, what various assessment frameworks include, what international and national examinations exist, and what assessment for learning involves. Finally, in the last section we review implications for further research.

Abstract: This article revisits the notion of linguistic diversity and its function as a political cleavage. It argues that people's linguistic and cultural attitudes are influenced not only by their communicative practice but also by their identification with particular language(s) - even though they may not always communicate in that language. In Ukraine, from which my empirical data is drawn, language identity is embodied in the concept of native language that was imposed by the Soviet institutionalisation of ethnicity and came to mean ethnic belonging as much as linguistic practice. My analysis of survey data demonstrates that native language is a powerful predictor of people's attitudes and policy preferences with regard to both language use and other socially divisive issues, such as foreign policy and historical memory. This finding should also be applicable to other societies with a large-scale discrepancy between language practice and identity.

Abstract: In this paper I argue that online intercultural interaction and exchange remains a relatively peripheral ‘add-on’ activity in most foreign language classrooms In its current state, it is yet to be considered an integral part of curricular activity and it does not yet form a significant part of high stakes assessment procedures Against this background, it is becoming increasingly difficult for educators to justify to learners the value of their online work I present here an overview of what online intercultural exchange involves and discuss what have been its contributions to foreign language education I then present findings from a survey of telecollaborative practices and discuss why this activity has yet to become a ‘normalised’ part of foreign language learning

Abstract: Content and Foreign Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) teachers and researchers are in luck with this new volume published by Peter Lang. They will all find good reasons to justify it is worth working on CLIL projects. The articles inside create an oasis in the middle of the desert, a mirror to look themselves into and see others with the same difficulties but also satisfactory results, and a wide range of ideas for further research and study on the field.

Abstract: This study explored the benefits and drawbacks of synchronous voice-based computer-mediated communication (CMC) in a blended course of English for specific purposes. Quantitative and qualitative data from two groups following the same syllabus, except for the oral component, were compared. Oral tasks were carried out face-to-face with same L1 partners in the control group and through synchronous voice-based CMC with different L1 partners in the experimental group. The analysis included data from general proficiency pre- and post-test scores, oral Power Point presentation grades, students' questionnaires and students' and teachers' diaries. The results showed that achievements were significantly better in the experimental group and that there was also an increase of other positive factors which may effectively contribute both to second language acquisition (SLA) and to solving many of the problems which make speaking skills the weakest skill in foreign language contexts.

Abstract: English language predictors of English and French reading development were investigated in a group of 140 children who were enrolled in French immersion programs. Children were first tested in kindergarten, and their reading achievement was tested yearly in both English and French from Grades 1 to 3, with word-level and passage-level measures that assessed accuracy as well as fluency. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine which English variables predicted Grade 3 outcomes and growth rates in English and French, and to determine the set of predictors that accounted for the most variance in outcomes and growth rates in English and French reading. The variables that predicted English reading development were consistent with studies of monolingual English children, even though participants were concurrently learning to read in French. Our findings provide evidence that at least some of the skills that play a role in learning to read are general cognitive and linguistic skills that transfer across languages. Phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, rapid automatized naming, and grammatical ability in English were able to predict reading ability in French. In contrast, English receptive vocabulary was a language-specific predictor. These findings demonstrate that first-language measures can be useful in the early identification of children at risk for difficulty in learning to read in a second language.

Abstract: Many studies in bilingual visual word recognition have demonstrated that lexical access is not language selective. However, research on bilingual word recognition in the auditory modality has been scarce, and it has yielded mixed results with regard to the degree of this language nonselectivity. In the present study, we investigated whether listening to a second language (L2) is influenced by knowledge of the native language (L1) and, more important, whether listening to the L1 is also influenced by knowledge of an L2. Additionally, we investigated whether the listener's selectivity of lexical access is influenced by the speaker's L1 (and thus his or her accent). With this aim, Dutch-English bilinguals completed an English (Experiment 1) and a Dutch (Experiment 3) auditory lexical decision task. As a control, the English auditory lexical decision task was also completed by English monolinguals (Experiment 2). Targets were pronounced by a native Dutch speaker with English as the L2 (Experiments 1A, 2A, and 3A) or by a native English speaker with Dutch as the L2 (Experiments 1B, 2B, and 3B). In all experiments, Dutch-English bilinguals recognized interlingual homophones (e.g., lief [sweet]-leaf /li:f/) significantly slower than matched control words, whereas the English monolinguals showed no effect. These results indicate that (a) lexical access in bilingual auditory word recognition is not language selective in L2, nor in L1, and (b) language-specific subphonological cues do not annul cross-lingual interactions.

Abstract: Analyses of second language (L2) classroom interaction often categorize joking and other humorous talk by students as disruptive, off-task behavior, thereby rendering it important only from a classroom management perspective. Studies of language play, however, have illustrated that such jocular talk not only allows students to construct a broader and perhaps more desirable range of classroom identities, but also occasions more complex and creative acts of language use than those normally found in L2 instructional settings. Likewise, critical sociolinguists have observed that the use of humor may constitute opposition and/or resistance to monotonous, culturally insensitive, or even face-threatening classroom practices. This article presents a case for a particular communicative mode-humor-to be seen as a pedagogical safe house (Canagarajah, 1999, 2004; Pratt, 1991), extending this notion beyond spatial and temporal domains. Specifically, it draws on the notions of performance, calibration (Bauman, 2004; Rampton, 2006), and layered simultaneity (Blommaert, 2005; Kramsch & Whiteside, 2008) to understand how particular instances of classroom humor function in this fashion. It then considers how an understanding of humor as a safe house can inform recent theoretical discussions of communicative competence and L2 classroom interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]