Abstract: This article argues for a reconceptualization of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research that would enlarge the ontological and empirical parameters of the field. We claim that methodologies, theories, and foci within SLA reflect an imbalance between cognitive and mentalistic orientations, and social and contextual orientations to language, the former orientation being unquestionably in the ascendancy. This has resulted in a skewed perspective on discourse and communication, which conceives of the foreign language speaker as a deficient communicator struggling to overcome an underdeveloped L2 competence, striving to reach the “target” competence of an idealized native speaker (NS). We contend that SLA research requires a significantly enhanced awareness of the contextual and interactional dimensions of language use, an increased “emic” (i.e., participant-relevant) sensitivity towards fundamental concepts, and the broadening of the traditional SLA data base. With such changes in place, the field of SLA has the capacity to become a theoretically and methodologically richer, more robust enterprise, better able to explicate the processes of second or foreign language (S/FL) acquisition, and better situated to engage with and contribute to research commonly perceived to reside outside its boundaries.

Abstract: Within the framework of viewing communicative competence as a prerequisite to linguistic competence, rather than vice versa, this paper considers the following: (1) the nature of communicative competence; (2) the implications of communicative competence for second language teaching; and (3) ways in which the teacher can begin to make a foreign language program more meaningful. Communicative competeuce is defined as what native speakers know which enables them to interact effectively with each other. Implications for the language teacher include: (T) the need for tests which measure the ability to use language; (2) the irrelevancy of sequencing surface features; (3) the need for emphasis on non-lizguistic aspects of communication; and (4) the need to re-examiLe attitudes toward students and language teaching. Practical suggestins for implementing communicative competence in the classroom include the use of spontaneous role-playing, discussions, games, radio, and the telephone. (AM)

Abstract: The ability to acquire and use several languages selectively is a unique and essential human capacity. Here we investigate the fundamental question of how multiple languages are represented in a human brain. We applied functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to determine the spatial relationship between native and second languages in the human cortex, and show that within the frontal-lobe language-sensitive regions (Broca's area)1,2,3, second languages acquired in adulthood (‘late’ bilingual subjects) are spatially separated from native languages. However, when acquired during the early language acquisition stage of development (‘early’ bilingual subjects), native and second languages tend to be represented in common frontal cortical areas. In both late and early bilingual subjects, the temporal-lobe language-sensitive regions (Wernicke's area)1,2,3 also show effectively little or no separation of activity based on the age of language acquisition. This discovery of language-specific regions in Broca's area advances our understanding of the cortical representation that underlies multiple language functions.

Abstract: This paper examines the effects of planning and post-task activity on task-based performance. It is motivated by the need, given recent claims that task-based instruction has desirable pedagogic qu...

Abstract: Dual-language immersion programs have received a great deal of attention from parents, researchers, and policymakers. The supporters of dual-language immersion see the promise of providing first-language instruction for children with non-English-speaking backgrounds, while simultaneously offering monolingual children access to non-English languages. In this article, Guadalupe Valdes concentrates on the possible negative effects of the dual-language immersion movement. After reviewing the literature on the success and failure of Mexican-origin children, the author raises difficult questions surrounding the use of dual-language immersion in the education of language-minority students. Among the issues raised are the quality of instruction in the minority language, the effects of dual immersion on intergroup relations, and, ultimately, how dual-language immersion programs fit into the relationship between language and power and how that relationship may affect the children and society.

Abstract: This paper reports on two studies that addressed the issue of ultimate attainment by late second language learners. The aim of the studies, which included a carefully screened group of highly successful Dutch learners of English in their designs, was to determine whether or not late second language learners who had achieved a nativelike performance in the pronunciation of a second language could be identified. Speech samples provided by two groups of learners, one of which consisted of highly successful learners only, and a native speaker control group were rated for accent by native speakers of English. The ratings obtained by some learners were within the range of the ratings assigned to the native speaker controls. Such results suggest that it is not impossible to achieve an authentic, nativelike pronunciation of a second language after a specified biological period of time. Examination of the learning histories of the highly successful learners lead the authors to argue that certain learner characteristics and learning contexts may work together to override the disadvantages of a late start.

Abstract: 1 Immersion: A Category within Bilingual Education SECTION 1 IMMERSION IN A FOREIGN LANGUAGE 2 Immersion in Eastern Europe: A Hungarian EFL Experiment 3 Benowa High: A Decade of French Immersion in Australia SECTION 2 IMMERSION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS IN A MINORITY LANGUAGE 4 Late, Late Immersion, or Discipline-based Second Language Teaching at the University of Ottawa 5 Immersion in Finland in the 1980s: A State of Development and Expansion SECTION 3 IMMERSION FOR LANGUAGE REVIVAL 6 Indigenous Language Immersion in Hawaii: A Case Study of Kula Kaiapuni Hawaii SECTION IV Immersion for Language Support 7 The Catalan Immersion Program 8 Reflections on Immersion Education in the Basque Country SECTION V IMMERSION IN A LANGUAGE OF POWER 9 The Hong Kong Education System: Late Immersion Under Stress 10 Immersion in Singapore Preschools 11 The Molteno Project: A Case Study of Immersion for English-Medium Instruction in South Africa SECTION 6 LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE AND NEW DIRECTIONS 12 Lessons from U.S. Immersion Programs: Two Decades of Experience 13 Innovations in Immersion: The Key School Two-Way Bilingual Model 14 From Semantic to Syntactic Processing: How Can We Promote It in the Immersion Classroom?

Abstract: This study qualitatively and quantitatively addressed the role of awareness in relation to Schmidt's noticing hypothesis in second language acquisition (1990, 1993, 1994, 1995). It analyzed both the think-aloud protocols produced by 28 beginning adult L2 learners of Spanish (selected carefully from a pool of 85 people on the basis of relevant criteria) completing a problem-solving task and their immediate performances on 2 post-exposure assessment tasks, a recognition and written production task. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of learners' performances suggest the following conclusions: (a) Different levels of awareness lead to differences in processing, (b) more awareness contributes to more recognition and accurate written production of noticed forms, and (c) the findings provide empirical support for the facilitative effects of awareness on foreign language behavior.

Abstract: This book offers concrete and practical ideas for implementing content-based instruction - using subject matter rather than grammar - through eleven case studies of cutting-edge models in a broad variety of languages, academic settings, and levels of proficiency. The highly innovative models illustrate content-based instruction programs for both commonly and less-commonly taught languages - Arabic, Croatian, French, German, Indonesian, Italian, Russian, Serbian, and Spanish - and for proficiency levels ranging from beginners to fluent speakers. They include single-teacher and multi-teacher contexts and such settings as typical language department classrooms, specialty schools, intensive language programs, and university programs in foreign languages across the curriculum. All of the contributors are pioneers and practitioners of content-based instruction, and the methods they present are based on actual classroom experiences. Each describes the rationale, curriculum design, materials, and evaluation procedures used in an actual curriculum and discusses the implications of the approach for adult language acquisition.

Abstract: List of Figures. Foreward. Preface. 1. Language and Intelligence:. Introducing Christopher. Theoretical Background. Hypotheses. 2. The First Language:. Introduction. Syntax. Semantics. Pragmatics. Conclusion. 3. a Seconda Languages:. Introduction. Background Information. The lexicon. Syntax. Conclusion. 4. New Languages: . Rationale. Controlled input: Berber. Learning an Impossible Language: Epun. Conclusions. 5. Language and Mind:. Christophera s Translation. A model of the mind. Theory of mind and meta--representation. Summary and conclusions. Epilogue. Appendices. Notes. References. Index.

Abstract: In the United States, the Communicative Approach has been the focus of much intellectual debate resulting in numerous studies examining the acquisition of the four language skills. Although the acquisition of certain morphological structures and discourse strategies have received attention, studies on the acquisition of target language pronunciation have lagged behind. Recent research examining phonological instruction indicates that improvement in pronunciation for adult foreign language learners is possible by employing a multimodal methodology designed to account for individual learning style variation. An extension of this research examines experimental subjects' overall improvement in pronunciation accuracy, pinpoints specific areas where pronunciation instruction appears to be most beneficial (e.g., discrete-word repetition, sentence repetition, discrete-word reading, and free speech); and determines natural phoneme classes and specific allophones that improved as a result of phonological instruction. The findings have implications for current communicative approaches.

Abstract: Students' vocabulary learning approaches were surveyed in two distinct learning environments; one where English was studied as a second language (ESL), and another where it was a foreign language (EFL). A questionnaire, based to some extent on Sanaoui's (1992) work, was administered to 47 ESL and 43 EFL students. Learners were asked to indicate, among other things, the amount of time they usually spent on vocabulary learning, the extent to which they engaged in independent language study, the type of vocabulary learning activity they did on a regular basis, the frequency and elaborateness of their note-taking and reviewing efforts, as well as the frequency and elaborateness with which they used dictionaries. Cluster analysis, a technique used for finding relatively homogeneous subgroups in a population, identified 8 different profiles of student approaches to lexical learning. Analyses were also conducted to determine a possible relationship between strategy use and achievement level. Students' performance on two tests, a Yes/No test assessing knowledge of academic vocabulary, and a cloze test assessing overall English proficiency, were compared for the 8 clusters. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Abstract: Interactive listening plays an important role in language learning. Specifically, the effective use of reception strategies by listeners in interaction can both resolve immediate comprehension problems and facilitate long-term language learning. This study investigated the types of reception strategies and the frequency of their use by students of French at different levels of language proficiency, measured by an oral proficiency interview as designed by ACTFL/ETS (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages/Educational Testing Service). A number of distinct strategies were identified. Students with novice-level proficiency made greater use of kinesics, global reprises, and hypothesis testing in English to clarify meaning or solicit further input. Students with intermediate-level proficiency also used these strategies, but less frequently and in qualitatively different ways. In addition, they more often used the strategy of uptaking. Results are discussed in light of cognitive and social constraints. The article presents pedagogical implications of the study's findings.

Abstract: Very likely no part of the world is a more appropriate locale in which to survey foreign-language education than Europe. Not only does each country there share a border with another where a different language is spoken by the populace, but also foreign-language education has a long history and foreign languages are both studied seriously and utilized by many Europeans. The postwar era with the expanding efforts at European cooperation has contributed to these phenomena by means of the European Union (EU) and the Council of Europe and lately the inclusion therein of Eastern Europe.

Abstract: Introduction I would like to begin this chapter with a personal experience, one that will probably be recognized by many readers as familiar. English is a foreign language for me. (Throughout this chapter, I will use the abbreviation L2 both for second and for foreign language.) I consider myself an advanced learner of that language. I receive great amounts of input in written form (professional literature) and oral form (radio, TV), but almost every day I read or hear some unfamiliar words. When I deem a new word important, I first make an attempt to infer its meaning from the context, I then look it up in my dictionary in order to check my inference, and finally I write the word down in a notebook, together with its context. Yet, I tend to forget the meaning of most of the words thus processed soon afterward. The next time I come across one of them, I remember having seen it and looked it up, I sometimes remember the context in which it originally appeared, but I cannot retrieve its meaning. I feel very annoyed, consult my dictionary once again, but take no further measures in order to better anchor the word in memory. Why is it that I couldn't remember the word's meaning the second time? What was wrong with my infer + look up + write down strategy? The most likely answer to these questions is that I might have done enough for immediate comprehension but not enough for retention over time. More precisely, I had not done enough to firmly link the word's form with its meaning.

Abstract: This article discusses certain influences on second and foreign language (S/FL) teachers and their teaching. I take the social contexts of teaching in schools as of primary concern because despite claims that teaching is a profession, its members often operate under conditions of far less autonomy than many of those in more prestigious professions. I go on to consider both the negative and positive aspects of the role of administrations on S/FL teachers and suggest administrative support for teacher development as an important means to improvement. The article also discusses FL teacher education and research in light of various criticisms that have been levelled at it and introduces the additional perspective of critical applied linguistics, which, I argue, may help to rectify some of the problems.

Abstract: The status and role of English as a school subject in China has fluctuated wildly because of its desirable but sensitive connotations. English is the language of world trade and communications, which makes its study an important strategy in implementing internationally-oriented policies for "modernization", while its historical overtones of imperialism, capitalism and even barbarianism are unwelcome for those who prefer more self-reliant and isolationist approaches. This paper traces the career of the English curriculum in China since 1949, with particular reference to the junior secondary school curriculum, through an analysis of the national syllabus and textbooks. It identifies five distinct periods and analyses the major forces of curriculum change, the dynamics of curriculum design, and the principal features of models for change in each of the periods. It is argued that the overall process of policy-making, and curriculum development specifically, has been characterized by a complexity and pattern of development which is not adequately recognized in existing portrayals that have focused on the relationship between macro political shifts and educational policies, and have emphasized the role of the state.

Abstract: Today, university teachers of foreign language (FL) in the U.S. face a pedagogical environment in which two camps have developed, one basing its emphasis on communicative competence, the other on the importance of exposure to culture and, especially, literature. The reliance of the former on data from empirical studies often conflicts with the feelings of the latter that nonquantitative, intuitional aspects of language learning are essential to language acquisition. However, much research into the role of culture and literature in language learning remains to be done so that these feelings may be articulated and applied systematically to the development of materials, syllabi, and curricula. Areas in which such articulation might take place include: (a) the extent to which language itself is laden with affect that may be catalyzed as an inducement to learning; (b) the extent to which the affective element is embedded in the nature of symbolic expression—and thus metaphor, myth, and literature; (c) the specific ways in which language and literature may encode culture and have an affective impact on learners in the classroom. Research already exists that lends itself to a close examination of these areas. By taking advantage of that research, FL teaching in the U.S. could establish the importance of literature and culture in the language classroom in ways that would solidify its role in an environment fraught with transformation and change.

Abstract: This article presents strategies for reading visual images. It illustrates how visual systems inform the process of listening for the meaning of foreign language words and phrases.1 We propose that the ability to read picture sequences as meaningful systems constitutes an important “visual literacy” that is essential for verbal comprehension of videos: An ability to recognize that visual images—such as what the camera focuses on, how much or how little is shown, and which people or objects are visually dominant or subordinate to others— suggest a pattern of values. Identifying values implied by these pictorial messages, we propose, helps students recognize how pictorial messages are underscored and elaborated in a video's spoken language. For this undertaking, we first briefly review key research and pedagogy in the field and then present an exercise sequence for video use that proceeds from visual to verbal systems appropriate for beginning language instruction. In conclusion, we suggest ways in which our strategies apply to a larger curricular program that integrates media in its overall learning objectives.

Abstract: Best predictors of overall proficiency in a foreign language were examined in 2 experiments. Experiment 1 involved 60 10th- and llth-grade girls attending a private, single-sex high school; Experiment 2 involved a coeducational population of 36 10th-grade students in a public school. Best predictors in both experiments were end of lst-year grade in the foreign language and a measure of phonology-orthography, foreign language word decoding. In 1 experiment, native language vocabulary skill was also a predictor of overall proficiency. Heretofore, foreign language grade and word decoding had not been considered as predictors of foreign language proficiency. The finding that foreign language word decoding was a good predictor of both oral and written proficiency suggests its importance as both a predictor variable and an important component of foreign language proficiency.

Abstract: In this challenging and at times controversial book, Ronald Carter addresses the discourse of 'English' as a subject of teaching and learning. Among the key topics investigated are: * grammar * correctness and standard English * critical language awareness and literacy * language and creativity * the methodological integration of language and literature in the curriculum * discourse theory and textual interpretation. Investigating English Discourse is a collection of revised, re-edited and newly written papers which contain extensive contrastive analyses of different styles of international English. These range from casual conversation to advertisement, poetry, jokes, metaphor, stories by canonical writers, public notices and children's writing. Ronald Carter highlights key issues for the study and teaching of 'English' for the year 2000 and beyond, focusing in particular on its political and ideological inflections. Investigating English Discourse is of relevance to teachers and students and researchers in the fields of discourse analysis, English as a first, second and foreign language, language and education, applied and literary linguistics.

Abstract: In spite of many efforts and contributions from previous researchers, the need for a creative approach in using combined Internet tools for C2 learning has not been found. This pilot study shows that the use of Internet resources is a meaningful way to integrate language and culture that provides opportunities for students to learn about the target culture while using E-mail to discuss cultural aspects with native speakers. In addition, the use of the Internet and E-mail increased students' interest and motivation for learning C2 and L2 in a dynamic rather than passive way. Foreign language teachers should be encouraged to explore and experiment with the Internet to fully exploit the possibilities for language learning by means of this resource that opens pathways to authentic materials and dynamic communications with native speakers around the world.

Abstract: Despite the proliferation of research articles in recent years dealing with language-learning strategies, ethnicity is one variable that has not received a great deal of attention in the literature. Japanese is a language that has not been targeted much in any investigation of language-learning strategies. This paper seeks to remedy these deficiencies by presenting the results of an exploratory study seeking to identify the language-learning strategies of learners of Japanese as a foreign language at a tertiary institution. It also seeks to identify the most- and least-favored strategies of a variety of ethnic groups and to investigate the relationship between ethnicity and language-learning strategy preferences.