Abstract: Acknowledgements Thanks Introduction 1. Teacher education: some current models 2. Acquiring received knowledge: the learner's perspective 3. Modes of teaching and learning in teacher education courses 4. Relating theory and practice: the reflective model 5. Classroom observation: recalling and analysing the data 6. Microteaching 7. Supervision and practical experience 8. Assessment in teacher education 9. Course design and assessment: checklist and case study Concluding remarks Some suggestions for further reading Bibliography Index.

Abstract: This paper looks briefly at the beginnings of what has come to be known as communicative language teaching (CLT), then discusses current issues and promising avenues of inquiry. The perspective is international. CLT is seen to be not a British, European, or U.S. phenomenon, but rather an international effort to respond to the needs of present-day language learners in many different contexts of learning. Not long ago, when American structuralist linguistics and behaviorist psychology were the prevailing influences in language teaching methods and materials, second/foreign language teachers talked about communication in terms of language skills, seen to be four: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skill categories were widely accepted and provided a ready-made framework for methods manuals, learner course materials, and teacher education programs. They were collectively described as active skills, speaking and writing, and passive skills, reading and listening. Today, listeners and readers are no longer regarded as passive. They are seen as active participants in the negotiation of meaning. Schemata, expectancies, and top-down/bottom-up processing are among the terms now used to capture the necessarily complex, interactive nature of this negotiation. Yet full and widespread understanding of communication as negotiation has been hindered by the terms that came to replace the earlier active/passive dichotomy. The skills needed to engage in speaking and writing activities were described subsequently as productive, whereas listening and reading skills were said to be receptive. While certainly an improvement over the earlier active/passive representation, the terms productive and receptive fall short of capturing the interactive nature of communication. Lost in this productive/receptive, message sending/message receiving representation is the collaborative nature of meaning making. Meaning

Abstract: Language and national integration language, communication and national development language and education language planning.

Abstract: In recent publications (Johns 1986, 1988) I have described a microcomputer-based approach to foreign language learning that takes seriously the notion that the task of the learner is to "discover" the foreign language, and that the task of the language teacher is to provide a context in which the learner can develop strategies for discovery strategies through which he or she can "learn how to learn".

Abstract: Introduction - language policy and language learning the ideology of language planning theory mother-tongue maintenance and second language learning modernization and English language teaching language policy and migration revolutionary language policy education and language rights conclusion - language policy and democracy.

Abstract: immersing an adult in a foreign language culture would force or motivate that individual to learn the language.' In the same audience sat a woman who admitted to having spent two years in each of three northern European countries with her husband, who had failed to learn any of the languages involved.2 Testimonials continued as conference participants relayed their various frustrating experiences with learning a foreign language. Why the topic of learning a FL was even discussed at a conference on dyslexia is an appropriate question. Its answer forms the springboard for our hypothesis here: namely, that students who experience difficulties learning a FL may have native language problems that impact upon their L2 learning as it is currently taught in schools. In this paper, we use the terms FL and L2 interchangeably to refer to the learning of an unfamiliar language. Dyslexia, a disability associated with reading and writing difficulties in individuals with average to superior intelligence (104; 120; 121), is one such native language disability. Learning disabilities (hereafter LD), defined in Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975) as ". . . a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written . .. ," is the generic term. For the past five years the authors, both LD specialists, have been studying the native and FL learning characteristics of high school and college s udents who are unable to fulfill FL requirements.3 In reviewing research on LD and dyslexia, we have found numerous references alluding to the difficulties these students have in FL classes. Many of these "at-risk learners" are diagnosed as LD only after college entry and only after failure in FL classes.4 Our recent explorations into the FL research literature indicate that FL educators, too, have been puzzled by the dilemma of why some persons learn a FL quickly and easily while others, given the same opportunities to learn, fail at the task. Among FL educators, these students commonly have been referred to as "underachievers."5 Aptitude and motivation for learning a FL have been issues of concern among FL educators in their search to understand indi-

Abstract: A reply to ‘Language varieties and standard language’ by Sir Randolph Quirk in ET21 (Jan 90)

Abstract: After reviewing research on native language (NL) listening, the article discusses (a) the importance of listening in second language acquisition, (b) factors that influence success or failure of comprehension of first or second language messages, (c) the role of listening in the L2 curriculum, (d) posited models of NL and L2 listening comprehension, and (e) proposed taxonomies of listening skills and pedagogical activities. The essay argues that researchers and practitioners working together can foster greater understanding of L2 listening comprehension; it is hoped that such collaborations will lead to better preparation of nonnative speakers of English who must function effectively in a contemporary industrialized society that appears to be shifting increasingly toward the use of English, and simultaneously to be shifting away from literacy toward orality.

Abstract: Language in Tanzania, C.M.Rubagumya on the history of English language teaching in Tanzania - three theses, A.F.Lwaitama et al reflections on recent developments in language policy in Tanzania, J.M.Rugemalira et al the English language support project in Tanzania, A.F.Lwaitama and J.M.Rugemalira when international languages clash - the possible detrimental effects on development of the conflict between English and Kiswahili in Tanzania, S.Yahya-Othman English language teaching and learning in Tanzanian primary schools, H.M.Batibo the training of secondary school teachers of English in Tanzania, M.Roy-Campbell can a foreign language be a national medium?, H.R.Trappes-Lomax The Communication Skills Unit and the language problem at the University of Dar es Salaam, J.M.Rugemalira accepted language behaviour as a basis for language teaching - a comparison of English in Kenya and Tanzania, J.Schmied Swahili terminological modernization in the light of the present language policy of Tanzania, H.Mwansoko political and economic dimensions to language policy options in Tanzania, C.M.Rubagumya and A.F.Lwaitama.

Abstract: This thesis is intended to give a panorama of technology in foreign language pedagogy. Although my field of study is French, the computer applications under scrutiny do not relate solely to the teaching of French. This paper begins with a criticism of the rigid listen-and-repeat language laboratory concept while tracking the rise of communicative language learning theory; follows the microprocessor revolution in language consoles; documents the development of computer-assisted instruction; showcases software evaluations of computer-assisted language learning; explores telecommunications; discusses satellite dishes and other computer peripherals; presents the results of a survey of Texas universities; and concludes with the presentation of the evolving language media center.

Abstract: Mediating languages and cultures teaching culture and language culture studies and foreign language teaching after World War II culture in German foreign language teaching area studies in the German Democratic Republic "Background Studies" in English foreign language teaching interculturalizing the French education system young people's perceptions of other cultures stereotypes in intercultural communication developing transcultural competence culture and "hidden culture" in Moscow cultural reference in European textbooks presenting distant cultures world studies and foreign language teaching relating experience, culture and language the acquisition of cultural competence the observation diary from integrative studies to context theory intercultural pedagogy intercultural learning at school language education across Europe.

Abstract: complex process that occurs with few external signs along the way. Out of recent research has come a growing understanding that comprehension is not just understanding words, sentences, or even texts, but involves building a model within the mind of the comprehender. In the past, comprehension research has been widely influenced by the generative-transformational theory of language, which described comprehension as building meaning from the smallest, simplest sentence-level features. This view predominated for some time despite some evidence to the contrary. For example, in 1932 Bartlett objected to research that used simplified stimuli such as nonsense words to test the

Abstract: The present study compared successful and unsuccessful college foreign language learners on measures of intelligence, foreign language aptitude, native oral and written language, and math. Unsuccessful students had received petitions to waive the foreign language requirement. No significant differences between groups were found on intelligence and reading comprehension. Significant differences were found on the Modern Language Aptitude Test, on tests of written and oral language in the syntactic and phonological domains, and on math calculation. Authors suggest that students with foreign language learning difficulties may have underlying native language problems manifested especially in the areas of syntax and phonology. Suggestions for diagnosing a foreign language disability are made.

Abstract: The following is a revision for publication of a paper presented at Gallaudet University, February 21, 1991. Co-sponsored by the Department of Linguistics and Interpreting and the Gallaudet Research Institute, it will appear also as the latter's Occasional Paper 91-1, with the same title, minor variations in text and format, and appended material. It appears here by permission of the author and the Gallaudet Research Institute. [Ed.]

Abstract: PART ONE: ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES Bilingual Education - Amado M Padilla Issues and Perspectives History of Language Minority - Marguerite Malakoff and Kenji Hakuta Education in the United States PART TWO: RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES IN BILINGUAL EDUCATION Language and Cognition in Bilingual Children - Kenji Hakuta Rationales for Native Language Instruction - Catherine E Snow Evidence from Research African American Dialects and Schooling - Halford H Fairchild and Stephanie Edwards-Evans A Review PART THREE: PROGRAM DESIGN AND EVALUATION Bilingual Immersion Education - Kathryn J Lindholm Criteria for Program Development Development of a Bilingual Education Plan - Concepcion M Valadez and Clementina Pati[na]no Gregoire Evaluation of an Elementary School Bilingual Immersion Program - Kathryn J Lindholm and Halford H Fairchild PART FOUR: THEORY INTO PRACTICE: STRATEGIES FOR THE CLASSROOM Combining Language and Content for Second-Language Students - Donna Christian et al Language and Problem Solving - George Spanos and JoAnn Crandall Some Examples from Math and Science Innovative Second-Language Instruction at the University - Marguerite Ann Snow and Donna M Brinton Dialogue Journal Writing - Joy Kreeft Peyton Effective Student-Teacher Communication Beginning at the Beginning - Joy Kreeft Peyton First-Grade ESL Students Cooperative Learning - Evelyn Jacob and Beverly Mattson Instructing Limited-English-Proficient Students Material Needed for Bilingual Immersion Programs - Karen Willetts and Donna Christian Innovations in Bilingual Education - Halford H Fairchild and Amado M Padilla Contributions from Foreign Language Education

Abstract: The current study determined the effect of authentic, unedited radio features on student listening skills in the foreign language classroom. Twenty-three students in two classes of intermediate French participated in the research. The basic instructional approach and materials for the two classes of students were identical. The groups differed only in that classwork, in the experimental condition, was regularly supplemented with Champs-Elysees, an unedited radio program produced in Paris. Student listening comprehension skills at the end of the fifteen-week semester were superior in the experimental condition as measured on two different aural tests of unedited native speech. Results confirmed that listening comprehension improves with increased exposure to authentic speech. The current study suggests that adjusting levels of speech (speed, content, and form) to students' developing comprehension, while perhaps helpful to the intermediate-level foreign language student, might not be essential to improvement of listening skills.

Abstract: Although over 400 languages are spoken in Indonesia, by 1986 60% of the population had some competence in the Indonesian national language, a substantial increase over 1971. Bahasa Indonesia was declared the state language in the 1945 constitution, and reformed spelling was agreed in 1972. It is the sole medium of instruction, except in the first three grades of elementary school in nine regions, where vernaculars may be used transitionally. Thereafter vernaculars are taught as school subjects. Bilingualism, and even multilingualism in Indonesian and one or more vernaculars and/or foreign languages is increasing, and despite the use of Indonesian for official documentary purposes at all levels it does not appear that vernaculars are dying out, although their spheres of use are restricted. Bahasa Indonesia fulfils the four functions: cognitive, instrumental, integrative and cultural, while vernaculars are only integrative and cultural. The curriculum of Indonesian, established centrally, is pragmatic or communicative. It is expressed in a standard syllabus for course books. This approach equally applies to foreign languages, which are introduced at secondary level, although here receptive reading is given more weight than productive skills. A full description of the syllabus organization of the various languages is given. Nonformal language learning also takes place, in the national basic education and literacy programme, which teaches Bahasa Indonesia, and in vocational courses in foreign languages for commerce.

Abstract: Kiswahili is one of the most widely used languages in East and Central Africa. In Tanzania, where it is the national language, attempts have been made to develop it so that it can be used as an efficient tool of communication in all sectors of the society, including education. This paper shows that although Kiswahili has successfully been promoted as the medium of primary and adult education, at secondary and tertiary levels of education, its position is still precarious. The notion that English and Kiswahili are in complementary distribution is rejected. It is argued that the two languages are in conflict, and that those who are in a better socio-political/economic position have more control of, and better access to, English. In such a situation the right question to ask is not in which domains English is used, butwhy it is used in such domains andwho uses it. The paper further argues that the present sociolinguistic environment makes the use of English as a viable medium unsustainable. For this reason, insistence on the use of English adversely affects the learning process. It is suggested that if Kiswahili became the medium of education at secondary school level and English was taught well as a foreign language, this would help to promote both languages without jeopardising the learning process.

Abstract: Focusing on two areas of importance--content and process, this text is geared to trainers of foreign language teachers, teachers who run training sessions, and teachers of self-help groups. The text will also be an invaluable resource for

Abstract: The success of games in second language teaching and the success of computers as game machines have led to the increasing use of computer games in foreign language classes. For teachers and software developers interested in this application, two crucial questions arise for a given program: How do we determine whether students will consider it a game? How do we determine whether it helps students learn language? These questions are explored and some recommendations for answering them are provided.

Abstract: Recent research findings suggest that students who have difficulty learning a second language have weaknesses in oral and written native-language skills which affect their performance in the foreign-language classroom. These weaknesses involve understanding the phonological, syntactic, and semantic codes of language. Evidence suggests that dyslexic/learning-disabled and other “at risk” students who struggle in the second language classroom exhibit particular difficulty with the phonological and syntactic codes of the language. The Orton-Gillingham method, a multisensory, structured language approach which adheres to the direct and explicit teaching of phonology, is presented as an alternative to the “natural” communication approaches recently developed by foreign-language educators to teach a second language. A method for adapting this approach for teaching Spanish is described.

Abstract: Examines the role of foreign language ability in international marketing. Suggests that the importance of language is more than much recent language‐oriented literature would have us believe. Looks at how and why language can become a barrier to communication, and then details the uses of a foreign language in marketing operations. Concludes by suggesting that language is the key to achieving market “closeness”, and it is for this reason that it is important.

Abstract: (1991). Cultural studies in foreign language education. The Language Learning Journal: Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 68-70.

Abstract: world is strongly characterized by diglossia.1 The literary language, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) contrasts with the (non-written) vernacular geographic variants known collectively as colloquial Arabic. The implications of diglossia for language learning have severely affected the teaching of Arabic as a foreign language, since instead of one language variant, students have to learn at least two if they wish both to be literate and to be able to converse about everyday topics. This problem, compounded by the inherent difficulties of a non-Indoeuropean language with a nonroman script, has discouraged and frustrated generations of students and potential students, who start out enthusiastically, but after one or two years of study often give up, finding that despite great effort, they are still extraordinarily limited in terms of communicative competence. Attempts to deal with the diglossia problem, such as the decision at the Middlebury Summer Arabic School to use MSA for all speaking and listening purposes as well as for reading and writing, have resulted in improved levels of proficiency, but in a variety of language which is not a form of spontaneous speech in the everyday world of Arabic speakers.2 A new form of widely intelligible spoken Arabic seems to be emerging in the Arab world, however, used for inter-dialectal conversation by educated native speakers, for semiformal discussions, and on other social occasions when the colloquial is deemed too informal, and the literary, too stilted. Sociolinguistic research has begun to investigate and define the characteristics of this language variant, and for a number of reasons it has become the language of choice for most spoken Arabic training at the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) of the US State Department. According to FSI's experience and increasing scholarly documentation, this new Arabic may now represent a viable option for spoken proficiency development in Arabic academic programs as well. At FSI, it is normally taught concurrently with MSA, so that students develop their ability to converse along with their ability to read.3