Abstract: This article is broadly concerned with the differences between individual language learners. In terms of particular content areas of Individual Differences (ID) research, it surveys developments in foreign language aptitude, motivation, learner strategies, and learner styles. A brief review of earlier research on aptitude is presented, followed by discussions of more contemporary work on the origin of aptitude, namely, as a residue of first language learning ability, and on the existence of evidence for “learner types.” Motivation research is reviewed partly with regard to Robert Gardner's research, and then in terms of a wider framework for the functioning of motivation within an educational context. The review of learner strategies research emphasizes current attempts to develop taxonomies of such strategies, and to investigate their theoretical basis and their trainability. Finally, learner styles research, drawing on field independence theory, is discussed, and links are made with the research on aptitude. The article finishes with sections on conceptual and methodological issues in ID research.

Abstract: In the "Michigan Classics Edition of Content-Based Second Language Instruction," the authors provide updates on the field of CBI in second language acquisition since 1989.While the core of the book remains the same, new features discuss important CBI-related research and modifications to the pedagogy in the past many years."Content-Based Second Language Instruction, Michigan Classics Edition," now includes: a new preface a glossary of key terms an updated bibliography an epilogue highlighting the major developments in the field since 1989.

Abstract: This paper summarizes the findings of a three year project which investigated the use of learning strategies by foreign language students and their teachers,1 and suggests specific classroom applications for learning strategy instruction. Three studies were conducted under this project: (a) a Descriptive Study, which identified learning strategies used in studying foreign languages, (b) a Longitudinal Study, which identified differences in the strategy use of effective and ineffective language learners and analyzed changes in strategy use over time, and (c) a Course Development Study, in which foreign language instructors taught students how to apply learning strategies. Classroom applications discussed in the paper include guidelines for developing students' metacognition and motivation through the identification and discussion of their existing language learning strategies, and techniques for modeling and practicing additional strategies that can help students become more effective and independent language learners.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to survey research on language learning strategies (LLSs), the behaviors used by learners to move toward proficiency or competence in a second or foreign language. LLSs are useful in both formal, academic settings and informal, nonacademic environmentsthat is, for both learning and acquisition. (For details on this distinction see Bibliography, 54. See 83 and 87 for examples of LLSs in both types of settings.) However, most of the research to date has been concerned with the classroom.

Abstract: This article proposes a conceptual framework for the integration of language and content teaching in second and foreign language classrooms. In this model, language and content teachers work collaboratively to determine language-teaching objectives. These objectives derive from two considerations: (a) content-obligatory language (language essential to an understanding of content material) and (b) content-compatible language (language that can be taught naturally within the context of a particular subject matter and that students require additional practice with). The conceptual framework is illustrated in four instructional settings—the mainstream class, the ESL class, the foreign language immersion class, and the FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary School) class. General implications for the integration of language and content teaching are also discussed.

Abstract: During the last 10 years there has been a surge of interest in methods for self- assessment of foreign language proficiency. Work has been undertaken in many parts of the world and several reports on both theoretical and practical issues have been published recently. This paper outlines the justification for adopting self-assessment principles in language teaching and learning, makes references to research and sources supporting the statements made, and also presents some ideas and materials that illustrate developments taking place.

Abstract: The sociolinguistic background individual characteristics interactional factors the code and its realization sociolinguistics and the teaching and learning of second and foreign languages.

Abstract: In this study we compared two methods for correcting language transfer errors in the foreign language classroom. Thirty-two English-speaking college students enrolled in two sections of an introductory French course served as subjects. Eight commonly encountered English-to-French transfer errors were identified and randomly assigned to one of two teaching conditions for one class section; each error was assigned to the opposite condition for the other section. In both teaching conditions students began by translating English sentences into French. The sentences were such that an L1 (first language) transfer strategy produced correct translations (e.g., using savoir for some uses of “to know”). A sentence for which the transfer would not produce an adequate translation (e.g., a sentence requiring connaitre) was then introduced in one of two ways. In one condition—what we have termed the Garden Path condition—students were given the new sentence and asked to translate as before. Their inevitable transfer error was then immediately corrected by the teacher. In the control condition students were simply given the correct French form and told that it differed from the English pattern (they were not given the opportunity to commit a transfer error). Student learning of the non-transferable form was assessed three times throughout the course of the semester, and at all time points performance was better in the Garden Path condition. We interpreted this finding as support for a cognitive comparison model of second language acquisition.

Abstract: structures, foreign language teachers often offer rules first and then examples (a deductive approach). The problem many students have applying these various rules indicates that they may not in fact fully understand the concepts involved. This approach tends to emphasize grammar at the expense of meaning and to promote passive rather than active participation of the students. The question needs to be raised, then, regarding the merits of not presenting the rule first but allowing the students to perceive and formulate the underlying governing patterns presented in meaningful con-

Abstract: larly amenable channel for second language acquisition is well established (Krashen).1 Recently, arguments have been advanced supporting the reading of L2 literary texts as powerful sources of linguistic and cultural input (Kramsch; Goldenstein). In fact, the use of any authentic selection is apparently very appealing to foreign language students in the US (Swaffar). The understanding of such passages can be improved by the L2 reader's use of knowledge of text topic and structure (Hudson; Carrell). Many literary passages, however, contain so many low-frequency vocabulary items that the reader's background knowledge may be unavailable because of the undue attention required to decode individual word meanings. In this case, reading no longer provides a minimally stressful access to real language but becomes instead a "threeto four-hour ordeal, mainly because of the [non-native reader's] constant recourse to a dictionary" (Crow: p. 242). The importance of vocabulary is underscored by a study which found that, in certain contexts, just one unfamiliar word can render a sentence or even a whole passage incomprehensible (Wittrock, Marks & Doctorow). One traditional means of bridging the gap between the L2 text and the L2 reader's limited cultural

Abstract: As increasing numbers of colleges and universities require a foreign language for graduation in at least one of their degree programs, reports of students with difficulties in learning a second language are multiplying. Until recently, little research has been conducted to identify the nature of this problem. Recent attempts by the authors have focused upon subtle but ongoing language difficulties in these individuals as the source of their struggle to learn a foreign language. The present paper attempts to expand upon this concept by outlining a theoretical framework based upon a linguistic coding model that hypothesizes deficits in the processing of phonological, syntactic, and/or semantic information. Traditional psychoeducational assessment batteries of standardized intelligence and achievement tests generally are not sensitive to these linguistic coding deficits unless closely analyzed or, more often, used in conjunction with a more comprehensive language assessment battery. Students who have been waived from a foreign language requirement and their proposed type(s) of linguistic coding deficits are profiled. Tentative conclusions about the nature of these foreign language learning deficits are presented along with specific suggestions for tests to be used in psychoeducational evaluations.

Abstract: The authors wished to monitor the attitudes of adults required to undertake the study of a foreign language. The requirement was part of a postgraduate degree. The subjects were virtual monolingual English speakers, with one exception. They were adult professional people taking a part-time Master's degree in Migration Studies. They were required to take two semesters of a foreign language of which they had no prior knowledge.

Abstract: Part 1 An overview on language planning issues and change: language planning and education, Richard B.Baldauf on the limits of language planning - class, state and power, Allan Luke et al. Part 2 Language planning and use in Australia: making language policy - Australia's experience, Joseph Lo Bianco some competing goals in aboriginal language planning, Paul Black towards evaluating the aboriginal bilingual education program in the Northern Territory, Bill Eggington and Richard B. Baldauf controllers or victims - language and education in the Torres Strait, Joan Kale an annotated bibliography on Australian languages, Joan Kale and Allan Luke. Part 3 Language planning and use in Melanesia and Polynesia: Solomons pijin - colonial ideologies, Roger M. Keesing Solomons pijin - an unrecognized national language, Christine Jourdan language planning in Papua New Guinea, Joan Kale Creolized Tok Pisin - uniformity and variation, Geoff P. Smith Tok Pisin at university - an educational and language planning dilemma in Papua New Guinea?, John Swan and Don Lewis language planning in Vanuata, Andrew Thomas education and language planning in the Samoas, Richard B.Baldauf language planning in Melanesia and Polynesia, Vicki Teleni. Part 4 Language planning and use in South East Asia: how bilingualism is being integrated in Negara Brunei Darussalam, Gary Jones the English language in Malaysia and its relationship with the national language, A.Conrad and K.Ozog evaluating bilingual education in the Philippines - towards a multidimensional model of evaluation in language planning, Andrew Gonzalez an annotated bibliography on language planning and education in South East Asia, Bo Yin language planning and education - a critical rereading, Allan Luke and Richard B. Baldauf.

Abstract: Nearly a century ago, Henry Sweet1 noted that conversation in a foreign language may be regarded from two very different points of view: (1) as an end in itself, and (2) as a means of learning the language and testing the pupil’s knowledge of it. But there is, of course, no reason why the second process should not be regarded as being at the same time a preparation for the first. (1899/1964, p. 219) While the importance of conversation to second-language (L2) acquisition has long been recognized, it is only recently that it has been the major focus of analysis. In particular, current research in L2 acquisition emphasizes the role of negotiated interaction between native speaker (NS) and nonnative (NNS) speaker in the development of a second language (Brock, Crookes, Day, & Long, 1986; Bruton & Samuda, 1980; Chun, Day, Chenoweth, & Luppescu, 1982; Day, Chenoweth, Chun, & Luppescu, 1984; Ellis, 1985; Long, 1983; Long & Porter, 1985; Pica, 1988; Scarcella & Higa, 1981; Varonis & Gass, 1985a and 1985b). Thus, the current view of the role of conversation in L2 learning differs noticeably from an earlier view of acquisition that held that learners learned grammatical rules and then practiced them within a conversation setting; classroom drills, classroom interactions, and daily interactions with NSs were considered important only as a means of reinforcing the grammatical rules acquired by a learner.

Abstract: eign language education have been refining their theories concerning the role of teaching grammar to promote mastery of a foreign language. Most theories maintain that the process of learning to read, write, speak, and understand a foreign language is facilitated through the study of grammar. However, some scholars have recently questioned the validity of grammar study as it relates to effecting functional mastery of a foreign language. Since the publication of the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines, specialists in foreign language pedagogy have been interested in adapting the principles of the Guidelines to the classroom setting. The concept of"proficiency oriented teaching" gives rise to a serious theoretical debate regarding how grammar should be taught: through explicit explanation or through implicit exemplification.

Abstract: In the 1970s, Clyne conducted linguistic research on German-English and Dutch-English bilinguals in Australia. In the course of the study, he found evidence for second language attrition and first language reversion among his elderly informants (Clyne, 1981). In 1987, some 40 of the 200 Dutch informants tested in 1971 were retested in order to get longitudinal data on language maintenance and loss. The data show surprisingly little loss of proficiency in both Dutch and English over the years. This calls for a revision of the language reversion hypothesis as stated by Clyne in 1981. In the present article the hypothesis is modified to the extent that there seems to be some kind of “critical threshold” (Neisser, 1984) that has to be reached in order to retain the second language. First language reversion seems to be a common phenomenon among those immigrants who did not reach this threshold, but not among immigrants who did.

Abstract: Authentic reading and listening texts expose students to real language from the beginning of their language study. Although authentic reading texts are available for novice students, real listening traditionally has been delayed until students are at the intermediate or advanced levels. This paper argues that novices can understand and benefit from authentic texts and that an early exposure to such texts will help them develop useful listening strategies for more complex tasks later on. Pre-listening strategies are as delicate as pre-reading activities, however. Care must be taken that the text is cultumlly relevant to the experience of the listener.

Abstract: Manchmal wird angenommen, daß die Kommunikation in einer Fremdsprache unabhängig von der Kenntnis der zu dieser Sprache gehörenden Kultur funktionieren kann. In diesem Artikel werden einige Beispiele aus dem marokkanisch-arabischen im Vergleich mit dem englischen Kulturkontext dargestellt, die zeigen, wie schwer es ist, die beiden Bereiche Sprache und Kultur zu trennen. Es wird betont, daß eine Einzelsprache vom kulturellen Hintergrund der Sprecher beeinflußt ist und diesen daher auch wiederspiegelt. Die Folgerungen aus dieser Erkenntnis für den Fremdsprachenunterricht werden diskutiert.

Abstract: essential element in foreign-language teaching (Adelson). The pre-audiolingual view that access to the great works of literature of the target culture was the major goal of language study--has perhaps been replaced by more functional rationales. The literary text is considered as an efficient vehicle for foreign language acquisition (Krashen: p. 15), as an organic whole for cultural analysis, and as a non-banal context for composition writing (Gajdusek). If we adapt literature to these aims, it becomes necessary to view and teach texts in new ways (Harper). Studies of reading in a foreign language during the past decade have provided clear evidence that familiarity with text content and structure can attenuate the

Abstract: A connection between two major developments in applied linguistics and language-teaching studies in recent years, English as an international language and interlanguage, is made in this article. Three problems addressed are (a) whether it is possible to define English as an international language and whether or not it makes sense to distinguish it from any other kind of English; (b) whether it makes sense to speak of the learner as having a language, whether learners everywhere all follow the same route, and whether it makes any difference what sort of input they receive; and (c) the relation between theory and practice in language teaching. It is argued that a language variety needs prestige to be regarded as a standard, which raises problems for certain ESL situations. Two major alternatives open to international languages have been put forward: (a) an existing language, either as itself or simplified in some way, and (b) an artificial language. Whereas English as an international language deals with societal varieties, interlanguage, on the other hand, is an account of individual variation. Both are necessary approaches to language in use, but neither can be incorporated in the other. It is pointed out that the concept of language proficiency may act as a link between the social and the individual concerns. TWO MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS In this article I suggest that English as an international language (EIL) and interlanguage (IL) are the two major developments in applied linguistics and language-teaching studies in recent years. I take this view because together they cover the two major language concerns: EIL with language in the world, its social use, and IL with language in the individual, its development and the connections it makes between learning first and second languages. These two topics are of importance in language teaching because they are related to the following issues: (a) the choices we make in

Abstract: The attempts at Maori language revival started in the 1970s, at a stage when there were few children still growing up speaking the language. The most important innovation has been the development of pre‐school language nests; several thousand children now come to elementary school after a pre‐school programme taught entirely or mainly in Maori. There are some bilingual schools; a growing number of elementary schools with Maori immersion in the first one or two years; and some high school programmes. The paper describes a number of these schools, discusses the way that the bilingual programmes define and establish Maori space in the schools, mentions the issue of local and tribal concerns, and argues that there is the basis here for revitalisation of the language.

Abstract: The 1980s were dynamic years for applied linguistic researchers and practitioners involved in the integration of language and content instruction. In addition to the publication of five stimulating texts devoted to the subject (Mohan 1986, Cantoni-Harvey 1987, Crandall 1987, Enright and McCloskey 1988, and Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989), there was increasing attention at all school levels to curriculum development, materials development, teacher training, evaluation, and assessment, Second and foreign language educators as well educators in the fields of mathematics, science, and social science have become cognizant of the relationship between language development and the acquisition of content-specific knowledge and skills.