Abstract: Preface Acknowledgements Introduction English Literature and English Language Literature and Education PART ONE LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE Introduction A Feeling for Language: The multiple values of teaching literature What is Robert Graves Playing at? The possibilities of Paraphrase in the Teaching of Literary Idiom Teaching Study Skills for English Literature Linguistic Models, Language, and Literariness: Study strategies in the teaching of literature to foreign students The Untrodden Ways Non-native Literatures in English as a Resource for Language Teaching Texts, Extracts, and Stylistic Texture PART TWO LITERATURE IN EDUCATION Introduction Is Literature Language? Or is Language Literature? Literature in the School Foreign-Language Course Reading Skills and the Study of Literature in a Foreign Language Literature in the ESL Classroom Testing Language with Students of Literature in ESL Situations Simple Text and Reading Text Literature in Schools PART THREE FLUENT READING VERSUS ACCURATE READING Introduction Literature Teaching in Tanzania Literature in East Africa: Reform of the Advanced Level Syllabus Proposed Examination Paper Wider Reading for Better Reading: An alternative approach to teaching literature Reading Speed and Literature Teaching References

Abstract: learning in the past thirty years has been integrally linked with the trends in foreign language teaching which have dominated the profession during this period and continue to exert an influence at the present time. These trends: grammar translation, habit learning, cognition or process learning, communicative competence, and the recent introduction of proficiency standards, reflect directions in language learning which have proscribed both what our student learners read and how they go about reading it.

Abstract: methodology. In this country, literary readings have always been considered part of a human*istic education and have never really disappeared from the foreign language curriculum. They are still widely used in language classes, especially at the intermediate and advanced levels, and the discussion of literary texts is often part of the same syllabus as communication-oriented exercises for the development of oral skills. The two activities are, however, methodologically at odds with one another. For while communication exercises activate two-

Abstract: This book contains the 32 papers in this collection (all but one previously unpublished) discuss attitude to the English language, its varieties, and its usages.

Abstract: This article takes a social-theoretical view of the reality created by a foreign language in the classroom. It examines the interaction of teacher and learners in their various activities along a continuum that extends from instructional to natural discourse and is determined by the way participants present themselves to one another and negotiate turns-at-talk, topics, and repairs. Suggestions are made for broadening and diversifying the discourse options in the classroom to enrich the social context of the language learning experience.

Abstract: Four writing samples were obtained from 638 applicants for admission to U.S. institutions as undergraduates or as graduate students in business, engineering, or social science. The applicants represented three major foreign language groups (Arabic, Chinese, and Spanish), plus a small sample of native English speakers. Two of the writing topics were of the compare and contrast type and the other two involved chart and graph interpretation. The writing samples were scored by 23 readers who are English as a second language specialists and 23 readers who are English writing experts. Each of the four writing samples was scored holistically, and during a separate rating session two of the samples from each student were assigned separate scores for sentence-level and discourse-level skills. Representative subsamples of the papers also were scored descriptively with the Writer's Workbench computer program and by graduate-level subject matter professors in engineering and the social sciences. In addition to the writing sample scores, TOEFL scores were obtained for all students in the foreign sample. GRE General Test scores were obtained for students in the U.S. sample and for a subsample of students in the foreign sample. Students in the U.S. sample also took a multiple-choice measure of writing ability. Among the key findings were the following: 1) holistic scores, discourse-level scores, and sentence-level scores were so closely related that the holistic score alone should be sufficient; 2) correlations among topics were as high across topic types as within topic types; 3) scores of ESL raters, English raters, and subject matter raters were all highly correlated, suggesting substantial agreement in the standards used; correlations and factor analyses indicated that scores on the writing samples and TOEFL were highly related, but that each also was reliably measuring some aspect of English language proficiency that was not assessed by the other; and (5) correlations of holistic writing sample scores with scores on item types within the sections of the GRE General Test yielded a pattern of relationships that was consistent with the relationships reported in other GRE studies.

Abstract: Wales is a small nation with a long and varied tradition of bilingualism. The minority language and culture is under threat. The book seeks to take the temperature of the Welsh language. Building on a computer analysis of the 1981 Welsh language Census data, the book provides evidence of a language moving slowly towards extinction. The aim of each chapter is to examine an issue which is of significance in most minority language situations, but is exemplified and encapsulated in the Welsh context. The effect of television and other mass media, the potential and threat of the microelectronic revolution, the existence and erosion of heartlands are issues which are part of the nervous tension of contemporary Wales and many other minority language regions. The role of bilingual education is a central issue of the book. A bilingual education model is described as a basis for analysing some of the problems and issues of Welsh and worldwide bilingual education. Another chapter analyses different approaches to curriculum development in minority language contexts and argues for a dual approach combining central initiatives and teacher based action research. Regional variations in the policy and provision of bilingual schooling in Wales are portrayed, and two further chapters present recent research into Welsh education. This research points to the crucial nature of immersion and active participation in the minority culture as a lifeline for the future of the Welsh language.

Abstract: philosophy of language teaching which I called the "Natural Approach" (NA).1 My suggestions at that time were the outgrowth of experience with Dutch and Spanish classes in which the target languages were taught to beginners whose native language was English. Since then the NA has been used in primary, secondary, and adult ESL classes, as well as in secondary, university, and adult Spanish, French, and German classes. During these five years of experimentation we have concentrated on the development of teaching techniques to implement the original proposals. This paper has two purposes: 1) to discuss the underlying assumptions of the 1977 paper in light of recent research in second language acquisition and learning, as well as from personal experience in the classroom; and 2) to suggest specific techniques for implementing the NA in second or foreign language class-

Abstract: The theory presented here states that all developing and developed bilinguals, no matter what their age or environment, have a preferred and a second language, specific and general, and that a developing bilingual increases his competence in his second language through an overall fluctuating activity between bilingual preferred/ second‐language medium‐orientated communication and monolingual second‐language message‐orientated communication, with the former decreasing in inverse proportion to his increasing proficiency in the second language. Both communicative levels are essential and one without the other will handicap the bilingual, whether developing or developed, in his efforts to become, or remain, a balanced bilingual. The theory applies no matter whether individuals acquire a preferred and a second language during infancy or a second or foreign language at a later age, in or out of the classroom. Some of the implications of the theory are then discussed.

Abstract: The relation between Chinese students' self-ratings of confidence with English, and indicators of assimilation and psychological adjustment, respectively, were examined. Factor analysis revealed that confidence with English was positively associated with linguistic assimilation into English-Canadian society and with several components of psychological adjustment (e.g., sense of personal control, selfesteem). Indicators of cultural assimilation (e.g., social distance toward anglophone groups) and involvement in the Chinese community were not, however, related to confidence with English. This pattern of findings suggests that for some ethnolinguistic minorities in Canada, self-rated confidence with the language of the majority group is not necessarily indicative of the loss of ethno-cultural identity by its members. Research on bilingualism in Canada has demonstrated that the acquisition of a second language is related to ability as well as motivational factors. Among Canadian anglophones learning French, two independent factors have repeatedly been found in factor analytic studies to be relevant to second language acquisition: language aptitude and a factor described as an "integrative motive" — i.e., a positive orientation towards acquiring a second language and a positive attitude towards the target language group (e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Similarly, among Canadian francophones learning English, language aptitude and motivation have been identified as correlates of second language acquisition (Clement, Gardner & Smythe, 1977, 1980; Clement, Major, Gardner & Smythe, 1977). Moreover, these researchers have found two factors pertaining to the motivational aspect of second language acquisition: the "integrative motive" factor obtained previously and a factor labelled "self-confidence with English," that is defined by high self-ratings of English proficiency and the absence of anxiety when speaking English. This latter factor has been found to be correlated positively with degree of competence in the second language. Clement and his associates proposed that the self-confidence factor was pertinent for Canadian francophones learning English but not for Canadian anglophones learning French. This research was made possible by a Chinese-Canadian History and/or Culture Fellowship to the first author, a SSHRC Sabbatical Leave Fellowship to the second author, and a University of Toronto research grant to the second and third authors. Thanks are due to Bernard C.K. Choi for assistance in back translation of the survey questionnaire from Chinese to English. Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to the authors, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A1. CANAD. J. BEHAV. SCI./REV. CANAD. SCI. COMP. 17 (4), 1985 370 PAK, DION & DION They suggested that this pattern of findings could be interpreted in terms of "ethnolinguistic vitality" (Giles, Bourhis & Taylor, 1977). Ethnolinguistic vitality refers to the social structural characteristics of a language and its speakers in a society, e.g., its relative prestige, demographic representation, and degree of institutional support. Giles and his associates argued that one possible consequence for members of a language group with low ethnolinguistic vitality (low prestige, little institutional support, members of language group scattered) is their assimilation into a language group that has greater vitality. Although they have majority status in Quebec, francophones are a linguistic minority in North American society. Clement et al. (1980) suggested that francophones who showed self-confidence with English had perhaps given up membership in the French-Canadian group, were no longer concerned about the loss of their French-Canadian identity, and were comfortable with their commitment to the second language group. In essence, Clement and his associates suggested that self-confidence with the majority language on the part of minority group members may be indicative of assimilation into the language group of the majority. In the present study, we tested this hypothesis with a different ethnolinguistic minority group in Canada, viz., Chinese university students in Toronto. If a minority's self-confidence with English is symptomatic of assimilation into the majority's language/cultural group, one would expect that those Chinese students who feel more confident with English would report less involvement in the Chinese community and show less social distance to members of the anglophone community. The present study also extended beyond previous research in another regard by examining the relation between self-rated confidence with English and several components of psychological adjustment (e.g., reported stress, self-esteem, sense of personal control). For members of an ethnolinguistic minority, confidence with the majority group's language should be accompanied by a greater feeling of personal efficacy. Measures of psychological adjustment were expected, therefore, to be positively related to Chinese students' feelings of proficiency in English. To address these issues, we asked a sample of Chinese students at the University of Toronto to complete a questionnaire assessing a number of domains including self-rated English proficiency, participation in the Chinese community, attitude toward the Chinese community, social distance toward the majority and other minority groups, and psychological adjustment. These variables were factor analyzed to test our hypotheses concerning the relation of self-rated confidence with English to measures of assimilation and psychological adjustment, respectively.

Abstract: The paper begins to explore the nature of the cognitive processing involved in foreign language learning. The notion of a “discourse world” as a set of elements against the background of which a unit of talk makes sense is introduced, and the claim is made that several such “discourse worlds” may be seen to coexist in classroom discourse, in part because of participants' “awareness” (on some level) of why they are there. The notion of a discourse world is then given a psychological interpretation in terms of frame-theory, and the view is argued that the simultaneous activation of several such frames is central to the business of understanding language, and to language learning. The classroom, it is argued, offers rich opportunities for the training of such multi-level perception of foreign language input, with consequent gains in learning. From this perspective Krashen's Monitor Theory is found implausible.

Abstract: This report examines the content characteristics of the Test of English as Foreign Language (TOEFL) from a communicative viewpoint based on current theory in applied linguistics and language proficiency assessment. After a review of relevant literature, the authors developed and applied a four-part operational framework for analyzing the communicative characteristics of a language proficiency test. The first component of this framework consists of the grammatical, sociolinguistic, and discourse competencies required by test tasks. The second component consists of eight factors that could influence test performance. The third component consists of judgements of the relevance of the content of test items to academic and social language use. The final component relates the langauge and language tasks appearing in TOEFL items and sections to a criterion-referenced scale of language proficiency. In this case, the Interagency Language Roundtable scale was used. Finally, the report discusses test design features that might improve the quality of language proficiency tests.

Abstract: DICTATION IS ONE OF THE OLDEST TECHNIQUES known for testing progress in the learning of a foreign language.' Until the end of the Middle Ages, it was used to transmit course content from master (teacher) to pupil in the first language classroom. It was also the usual way of publishing a book in the medieval scriptorium, a room in a monastery where a master commonly dictated to a group of scribes.2 From these origins, which represent a kind of prehistory of dictation, it passed into the second language classroom as certain groups began the study of modern foreign languages in the sixteenth century. Dictation has long been associated with the traditional or grammar translation method. The traditional method emphasized written translation and the memorization of rules of grammar. Although grammar translation techniques (paradigms, tables, declensions, conjugations) were not fully developed until the beginning of the nineteenth century, its origins can be found in sixteenth-century textbooks that used the translation and memorization of proverbs as a point of departure for learning vocabulary and grammar.3 Given the frequent unavailability of textbooks, dictation probably continued to be relied upon as a means of transmitting foreign language materials to pupils. Thus, writing accurately from dictation would have to be taught to foreign language pupils just as it was surely taught to scribes. Because of its association with the grammar translation method, dictation was strongly rejected by Gouin, who was the best known of a group of methodologists who advocated the natural method during the second half of the nineteenth century.4 The natural method sought to imitate the child's learning of the native language through the verbalization of each action during play. Thus, the natural method showed similarities to the total physical response approach that is advocated today.5 Supporters of the natural method discouraged the teaching of reading and writing in the foreign language. Gouin's widely read book on teaching and studying languages illustrates his thoughts regarding dictation: "No more dictation lessons. This deplorable exercise is severly interdicted. ... It would be better simply to copy; the pupil at least would not make mistakes, and to copy he does not need a master. During the time that he scribbles and blots on a page under dictation, he might assimilate it and read it over twenty times. Therefore we have no more corrections, no more recitation of lessons, no more dictation" (pp. 331-32). The natural method received considerable attention in the United States. The "Report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association (MLA) of America on Preparatory Requirements in French and German" proposed that more oral teaching be done in the language classroom.6 The influence of some of Gouin's attitudes toward language teaching methodology are apparent in it. Little mention is made of dictation as a teaching or testing device. Under German, it is mentioned (p. 106) as "helpful in learning to spell" during the first year. Under French, the report (p. 115) slights dictation saying that in "reproducing French sentences, several can be spoken in the time needed to write one."

Abstract: teaching (FLT) was a purely academic activity, the purpose of which consisted mainly, if not solely, in developing the learners' mental capacities and their cultural or literary knowledge of the target language and of the community that spoke it. Since World War II, however, we have witnessed an increasing demand for efficient practical language learning in order to enable students to use a language as a tool for professional purposes. In the fifties and sixties this important shift in goals resulted in the rapid abandonment of the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) and its replacement by the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) or StructuroGlobal-Audio-Visual (SGAV) Method, two only slightly different variants of the same approach. Although the ALM/SGAV was received with great enthusiasm, high expectations very soon turned sour because teachers and students alike had the persistent feeling that a frustrating gap existed between the input, i.e., the time and effort of the learners, on the one hand, and the output in terms of receptive and productive knowledge, on the other. Now that we have arrived at a stage where the ALM and SGAV have been largely abandoned and replaced by what might be called here, for the sake of convenience, various eclectic methods and approaches, among which is the functional-notional or communicative approach, we should ask ourselves whether it is possible, given the same artificial school setting of teaching a foreign language to twenty to thirty students per class at an intensity of three to four hours a week, to improve substantially the quality as well as the quantity of the learning which we have been used to for so many years. Our answer is that a teacher can double the

Abstract: An important skill which the language learner uses in the listening task is knowledge of the syntax of the target language. This study empirically examines the effect of one aspect of surface structure, word order, on the listening comprehension and pattern retention of native English speakers learning Spanish The factors of sentence length and position of a sentence in a given context are also analyzed As the basis for the experiment, a brief discussion is presented of theoretical implications of word order processing and memory in listening. A comparative analysis of Spanish and English word order patterns follows, which identifies three principal word order patterns of Spanish. subject-verb-object, verb-subject-object, and object-verb-subject Results are reported of the experiment which tested the abilities of native English-speaking students of Spanish and native Spanish speakers to comprehend an oral passage and remember the word order of certain sentences. The findings indicate that word order significantly affected the degree of comprehension of the English speakers In addition, for both groups of participants, sentences which were both longer and in final position in a context were comprehended most effectively Word order and sentence position significantly affected surface retention of both groups Further, there is indirect evidence to lend additional support to transformational grammar theory indicating that native speakers and foreign language learners may utilize an aural processing strategy of converting patterns to the basic SVO word order Implications of this investigation for Spanish foreign-language pedagogy as well as suggestions for further research are included.

Abstract: TOWARD A RATIONALE FOR FOREIGN-LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY REQUIREMENTS FOR DOCTORAL DEGREES IN SELECTED PROFESSIONAL DISCIPLINES

Abstract: In this article, reading is considered to bean interactive process in which the schematic information a reader possesses for the topic of a given text is as important to adequate comprehension as the information presented on the printed page. When reading in a foreign language, understanding of that language's accompanying culture enables students to approach reading topics from the appropriate cultural perspective. Several classroom activities are described for use before reading, while reading, and after reading.

Abstract: All foreign language educators agree on the importance of including the study of culture in a foreign language course. However, the methodology for teaching culture lags far behind recent innovations in foreign language teaching itself. Too many culture courses emphasize only the rote memorization of cultural “facts” and fail to help students acquire the sensitivity to understand deeper cultural values. This article proposes a series of practical classroom activities designed to increase cross-cultural sensitivity. The first exercises help sharpen students' awareness of their own (U.S.) cultural background. Subsequent activities focus on differences between U.S. culture and the target culture. Foreign photographs and advertisements are used to teach students to observe and interpret cultural differences. Students interview foreigners to gain a new perspective on U. S. culture. Use of any or all of these activities in the classroom should heighten cultural sensitivity, discourage stereotyping, and develop cross-cultural adaptation skills.

Abstract: eign languages is that students do not seem to possess the vocabulary to talk about the grammar structures of their own language. We ask why some students have considerable difficulty with what appear to be simple, clearly-stated grammar explanations and we worry that so much time is spent explaining and illustrating grammar terminology that little remains for less structured, more communicative practice. Traditionally, time spent in the native language on clarification of simple grammar points has been considered remedial instruction; it has been taken for granted that students would have learned such things about their own language and be able to transfer that knowledge. However, students may never have had the opportunity to learn what many foreign language teachers and textbooks tend to assume they have learned about their own language. Most beginning (university) language textbooks are based on certain basic assumptions about the nature of the student's knowledge of English: 1) the common native language of the student is standard American; 2) the student's knowledge of English includes a certain (although unspecified) level of understanding of grammar structures; 3) the structures have common labels that may be used to identify and describe them. An inspection of currently-used textbooks in French, Spanish, and German indicates that these "common labels" include

Abstract: feasible for research on second/foreign language learning by students with the same native language (e.g., the learning of a foreign language by native speakers of American English or the learning of English as a second language by speakers of the same native language) than for research on ESL reading comprehension of students from a variety of language backgrounds.Clearly, however, studies using target language recalls may elicit artificially low performance as a result of subjects' limited production abilities.

Abstract: This article deals with the use of video in the teaching of foreign languages. In the article I discuss the use of prerecorded video cassettes and video recordings taken from TV. The object is to present the medium's special usefulness and to discuss the communicative functions in connection with teaching and student capability in general. I also discuss the use of video cassettes as an especially effective means of reinforcing foreign language teaching in secondary technical education where the teaching of Language for Special Purposes (LSP) among other things must concentrate on the most conspicuous and frequent traits in this particular use of the language. In one example from the teaching of technical English in Swedish secondary technical education I try to show how video cassettes give the learners motivation for LSP studies.

Abstract: Consistent results of two experiments with relatively technical, native language vocabulary, showed that effectiveness of keyword methods depended upon whether meanings of words to be learned were abstract or concrete and whether comprehension was assessed immediately or after a delay. Keywords bearing acoustical similarities to vocabulary items whose meanings were presented as sentences consistently facilitated students’ retention of the meanings of concrete items on immediate posttests. However, in contrast to recent research on foreign language vocabulary having simpler definitions, these experiments showed that it may be difficult to use the keyword method to aid long-term retention with moderately complex. abstract, native language vocabulary.

Abstract: The authors intend to direct attention, through this report of a collaborative, school‐based study, towards the interactional processes which characterise secondary foreign language (FL) lessons. It is argued that, since these processes have an influential effect upon pupils’ learning and attitudes, this kind of research can yield important insights for an area of the curriculum which has many current problems and which is relatively unpopular with pupils. The methodology employed blends discourse analysis with ethnographic procedures and aims to identify patterns of teacher‐pupil interaction. Degrees of teacher‐dominance in FL lessons are related to constraints which derive from the subject‐matter and purposes of language teaching. Teacher‐strategies, and their implications for pupils’ viewpoints of the subject, are considered; and fruitful lines of further research are indicated.