Abstract: Since its original publication in 1968, Rivers's comprehensive and practical text has become a standard reference for both student teachers and veteran instructors. All who wish to draw from the most recent thinking in the field will welcome this new edition. Methodology is appraised, followed up by discussions on such matters as keeping students of differing abilities active, evaluating textbooks, using language labs creatively, and preparing effective exercises and drills. The author ends each chapter of this new edition with questions for research and discussion-a useful classroom tool-and provides an up-to-date bibliography that facilitates further understanding of such matters as the bilingual classroom.

Abstract: optional) Orientation (description of setting, introduction of participants) Complicating episodes Climax Resolution or final action Coda (optional) This structure provides another etic set of units within which to compare proportions of attention, selective omissions, and verbal strategies (as in how transition to the climax is marked). Dimensions where we have found language/culture-specific patterns of contrast are openings and closings; personifications of the owl “family,” 160 Contrasts in Patterns of Communication including naming and kin terms, assignments of relationships and responsibilities, and attributions of personality and motivation; omission of events which are on the etic list and addition of events which are not; inferencing and interpretation based on background information or experiences; symbolic interpretation of animals, colors, and other physical elements; and formulating moral judgments or other evaluations of behavior. For example, contrasts in patterns of closing relate in large part to the societal function which the tellers believe such stories serve. Representative of American codas are: Naughty little owl has learned his lesson and everyone lives happily ever after. Back in the tree the three laugh about the adventures and run into the house to play. All the owls thought this was funny, so they had a big laugh and went home. Safe and sound up on the limb, her brothers explained to her about the bad fox and she apologized for not paying attention. They lived happily ever after and none of the three ever told their parents! In contrast, the following translations are typical of endings which were told in Chinese: Afterward it dared not fail to listen to lectures again. Afterward it knew it needed to concentrate, and couldn’t fool around or play video games or watch television. Then it felt ashamed, because usually it did not study well, and it only loved to watch television. Then it shed tears. Such moralizing was also integrated into the interpretation of events. For instance, the episode of the owlet’s not learning to fly was retold by one adult in this way (translation from Chinese): The next day, father and mother made them do exercise and practice flying. In this way, when they grow up, they can live independently. Father swung the first baby in the air, he flew bravely over. Mother swung the second baby in the air, he also bravely flew over. When it was the turn of Little Red, he was so timid. He was very lazy too, and even did not dare to give it a try. He was crying in his mother’s arm: “I don’t want to try, I don’t, I am so scared.” His mother said this child needs more exercise later. The same story-teller later provides this coda: From then, the small owlet realized that as a little child, he should study hard, exercise hard and not be lazy from a very young age. Contrasts in Patterns of Communication 161 Also of considerable interest in interpretation of events in these stories is the extent to which mention and amount of detail in recall is dependent on tellers’ prior knowledge and on the cultural salience of the events. For example, American adults and children who retold this story gave relatively less attention to the complicating event in which the owlet did not pay attention at school than did the Chinese speakers, and only Chinese story tellers reported that the teacher was angry. On the other hand, most of the Americans mentioned that the owlets were “playing cowboy” when one fell, while few of the Chinese did. There was some misinterpretation by Chinese children who did mention that scene but said that the owlets were playing gangsters or Kung Fu. This finding is in accord with schema theory (e.g. Steffensen, Joag-Dev, and Anderson 1979), which claims that what is already known provides “ideational scaffolding” for details in recall tasks. There were two scenes which almost no one mentioned: a sequence of alternating suns and moons to represent passage of time, and the owlet’s ear-tufts growing to represent embarrassment. These symbols were either not recognized or were not considered important. In addition to showing different patterns across languages and cultures, event retelling tasks may also be highly productive for analyzing developmental factors: e.g. contrasts between children and adults in the same language, and between native speakers of a language and second language learners at different levels of competence.

Abstract: and over again, despite the fact that they have studied certain rules of grammar.1 Fortunately or unfortunately, the problem of recurring errors is not peculiar to the teaching of German. The question remains, therefore, what measures teacher and student can take to ameliorate the situation. How can students be brought to show an appreciable decline in errors from one essay to the next, or at least from course beginning to course end? Numerous suggestions have been advanced by foreign language methodologists, educational psychologists, and applied linguists as to how writing skills might best be developed. While many seem worthy of implementation, few offer data to support their claims of efficacy. For example, in Cooper's excellent article on the effects of sentence-combining techniques, he admits that no data were available to indicate whether positive correlations existed between the successful "hastened development of syntactic maturity" and grammatical accuracy (i.e., correctness of expression, excluding lexical errors).2 What suggestions have professionals in the field advanced to develop writing skills so that student errors decrease as their writing skill matures? A perusal of the professional literature leads to the conclusion that the following represent components of an effective strategy for the development of writing skills-at least for most modern foreign languages taught in this country. Comprehensive Error Correction. While selective correction of errors is certainly defensible in the development of speaking skills, the same cannot be said where writing skills are concerned. Unless all errors are identified, the faulty linguistic structures, rather than the correct ones, may become ingrained in the student's interlanguage system. Thompson's pragmatic position on error correction is difficult to rebut: "The student does not improve his skill if his work is not corrected."3

Abstract: Following a nontechnical account of how teacher and students interact, and how the mind deals with foreign language data, this text describes a wide range of teaching techniques, It discusses the advantages as well as disadvantages revealed through personal experience.

Abstract: philosophy of language teaching which I called the "Natural Approach" (NA).1 My suggestions at that time were the outgrowth of experience with Dutch and Spanish classes in which the target languages were taught to beginners whose native language was English. Since then the NA has been used in primary, secondary, and adult ESL classes, as well as in secondary, university, and adult Spanish, French, and German classes. During these five years of experimentation we have concentrated on the development of teaching techniques to implement the original proposals. This paper has two purposes: 1) to discuss the underlying assumptions of the 1977 paper in light of recent research in second language acquisition and learning, as well as from personal experience in the classroom; and 2) to suggest specific techniques for implementing the NA in second or foreign language class-

Abstract: the tento fifteen-year history of the field. Initial studies focused on the frequency and types of recurrent errors committed by second language (L2) learners, with an eye toward uncovering the linguistic and communicative strategies which characterize the use of a foreign language (FL). These pioneering efforts have paid off handsomely. A sizable body of empirical work now allows us to talk meaningfully not only about how these learners use (and confuse or misuse) what they know of the target language (TL), but also how they compensate for lacunae in their L2 repertoires. A recent area of inquiry within error analysis concerns the measurement of comprehensibility and irritation in communications in the TL, and the study of the degree to which the two interact. This type of error analysis focuses on the impressions and reactions of native speakers (NS's) rather than on the productions of learners per se, in an attempt to document the characteristics of successful and unsuccessful L2 communications. The lin-

Abstract: Notwithstanding the predictive value of foreign language aptitude measures, the underlying ability or abilities tapped by them and their relationship to measures of intelligence are not well understood. This study provides a partial characterization of the nature of language aptitude through correlations and factor analyses of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMA). The subjects of the study were 793 English-speaking Canadian public servants at various stages of intensive French language training. The results revealed substantial redundancy among the subtests of the MLAT and PMA batteries and a Kaiser's Little Jiffy factor analysis yielded a one-factor solution at the second-order level. A principal factors solution, however, identified three interpretable second-order factors, characterized respectively as first language verbal knowledge, abstract reasoning ability, and ability to learn new language elements and associations. A unitary third-order factor was also identified, probably approximating Spearman's g. Taken together, the findings of the study are compatible with the conceptualization of language aptitude according to a hierarchical model which subsumes specific abilities of importance in the language classroom under a more encompassing general ability, or general intelligence.

Abstract: "LANGUAGE LOSS" REFERS TO LOSS OR ATTRITION of skill in one's native language (L1) or a second or foreign language (L2).1 The phenomenon can have both sociological and psychological forms. That is, language loss can be exhibited by a whole cultural or linguistic group or by an individual; it can be analyzed in terms of rate, sequence, linguistic components, or skill types. This article reviews studies on language loss in its individual rather than its group form. L1 loss is emphasized more than L2 loss. Focus is on research that has relevance to foreign language teaching practices. Language loss through aphasia, senile dementia, and physical illness is not the subject of this article, because experts have accomplished more comprehensive work on those topics than is possible to describe in a brief exposition.2 The discussion is organized as follows. The first section presents a review of studies in three categories: 1) research on the optimal age for foreign language learning, on the assumption that such research has implications for the study of language loss; 2) studies on cognitive aspects of language loss; and 3) investigations concerning attitudes toward language learning, maintenance, and loss. In the second section are limitations of currently available research and suggestions for improvement. The third section describes future research needs. Implications fdr foreign language teaching are found in the final section.

Abstract: An electronic apparatus for translation from a host language to a non-host language in which the individual word is evaluated as to its contextual meaning. The sequence of words, typically a sentence, within the host language, which is communicated to the electronic apparatus is translated, through a recognition device into a series of recognized words. These recognized words are further refined through analysis of their contextual meaning within the sequence (sentence) so as to differentiate between words of similar pronunciation and between homonyms. The present invention permits the direct entry, from voice, to a translator to a foreign language or alternatively to control language for use with an electronic or electromechanical apparatus.

Abstract: tually, as long as they pronounce it properly." So said Henry Higgins in the musical My Fair Lady. Is it really foreign speakers' mistakes in pronunciation, rather than those in vocabulary or grammar, which annoy the French the most? The purpose of the present study was to investigate precisely this problem. Many sociolinguists as well as foreign language educators have discussed the effects of speech deviancies of non-natives on native speakers and the need to investigate native speakers' comparative reactions to different types of errors in non-natives' speech.1 Valdman specifically states: "The effect of errors on the communication of messages and the degree of tolerance accorded to those errors by native speakers must be considered."2 In particular, this research project sought to determine which category of errors typically made by French-speaking Americans, errors in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar, is the most objectionable to the French ear. The project, conducted in France, involved two hundred and fifty French people who participated in interviews in which they registered their reactions to taped speech samples of Americans speaking French. The findings of this study naturally suggest guidelines for the curriculum of instructional programs in French in American schools.

Abstract: guage achievement, it is important to consider several questions when evaluating the role of FD/I in second language learning. First, what is the significance, educational as well as statistical, of the performance difference between field-dependent and field-independent students? Second, does the learner's cognitive style interact with other factors in the learning situation, such as the teacher's cognitive style, to affect achievement differentially? The purpose of this paper is to explore these issues in relation to some pertinent data. Initially, however, it is necessary to review background information on the FD/I construct, its relationship to education in general and to second language learning in particular. BACKGROUND

Abstract: of foreign languages in American schools, various theories have been proposed in response to the question: how do students learn a foreign language? This issue of what is entailed in a foreign language learning process has often been linked to the perceived value of studying a foreign language. For example, during the nineteenth century, language teaching was done mostly by the grammartranslation method, in which students memorized long lists of vocabulary words and translated complicated grammatical constructions. The value of such exercises was supposedly that they improved general mental capacities, including the student's ability to reason, to observe, and to memorize. Toward the middle of the twentieth century, emphasis shifted from the grammar-translation approach to practical goals in developing language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The value of stressing skill development was perceived as providing students with a tool that could be directly applied to "real-life" activities, i.e., travel, vocation, research. Generally, discussion about how students best learn a foreign language revolves around the merits of rival theories. However, my purpose here is not to establish the validity of any theory, but to propose that what we teach (or think we are teaching) and how we teach it, along with the complementary perceptions of the value of language study, are intimately linked to a metaphor. This metaphor may be conscious or unconscious, but in either case we must understand what it is in order to comprehend what we are doing. This paper examines the major trends in foreign language learning theory during the last hundred years and attempts to assess the effect of each accompanying metaphor. A review of published research on metaphor and foreign language teaching reveals very little. An exception to this is a study by Light in which he created a metaphor to help arrange the elements of grammar in a way that would be useful for the teaching of English as a foreign language.1 The idea of relating theory and metaphor within the field of general curriculum, however, appears to be a more common practice. Kliebard has argued that metaphors and curriculum theories share "the effort to organize thinking by setting in motion an interaction between the familiar and/or comprehensible on one hand and the thing to be explained on the other."2 That is, metaphor can act to take the initially vague concepts of a theory and hold them up to examination in terms we can understand and often visualize.

Abstract: This paper investigates the self-esteem of adults learning English as a second language. Subjects indicated their abilities on a fifteen-statement index and teachers, using a similar index, indicated their perceptions of the students' abilities. These were compared to one another and to the TOEFL scores for the students. The results—that students and teachers do not view the students' language abilities similarly—are related to motivational and cultural factors. It is suggested that self-esteem, as indicated on the perception indices, may be a factor in motivating students. Further investigation using this type of measure could prove useful in assessing student needs.

Abstract: have been urged to make the culture of the target language an integral part of classroom work. A recent article states: "If we teach a foreign language without introducing at the same time the culture in which that language operates, we are merely conveying words to which the student attaches the wrong meaning. . . ."' However, foreign language composition is possibly inhibited by target cultural elements that add to the cognitive processing difficulties encountered by the students. Johnson has demonstrated that the cultural origin of a story has a more powerful effect than the level of syntactic and semantic complexity on reading comprehension for students of English as a second language. That is, foreign students' recall of a Buffalo Bill story was inhibited because of a lack of a schema for the cultural

Abstract: dents, we seem to think we know what "good teaching" and "good teachers" are; and, in fact, based on our often rather lengthy experience in schools, we can conjure up quite a list of effectiveand ineffectiveteacher traits, teaching techniques, and classroom activities. Under careful scrutiny, however, a definition of "good teaching" and "good teachers" is clearly elusive. Until recently, even a brief review of the literature on teaching provided little evidence either to support or refute the time-honored patterns of instruction. As Medley summarizes: "In the past, the impact of research on teacher effectiveness on either the evaluation or the training of teachers has been slight. Both important enterprises have been operating without any firm research base, owing in part to a failure of communication and in part to the inconsistency and incomprehensibility of most of the research findings."' This conclusion is especially relevant to the teaching of foreign languages. Student teachers are trained to use techniques which seem to be effective. We speak of "good teaching" without justifying the effectiveness of classroom techniques and behaviors in terms of actual student performance. While we have no intention of providing a conclusive definition of "good teaching," this paper does focus on a relatively new line of research that has been useful in identifying effective teaching behaviors. Specifically, the paper has four goals: 1) to provide a review of the research on teacher effectiveness and to summarize the "state-of-the-art" with respect to foreign language instruction; 2) to introduce the concepts and terminology of timebased research on teacher effectiveness so as to establish a framework for analyzing foreign language instruction; 3) to outline in detail a set of data-gathering techniques which might be used by teachers, cooperating teachers, supervisors, and researchers to obtain information about teacher effectiveness; 4) to provide a theoretical and practical background-variables, basic data, predictive analyses, teaching techniques-of a large scale study to be reported in subsequent papers.2

Abstract: DOCUMENT RESUME

Abstract: This article presents and discusses an observational system that discriminates between personal and impersonal (or neutral) verbal behavior of teachers and students in the foreign language classroom, ascertains the usability of the instrument for the collection of data on the nature of such interactions, determines the extent to which two groups of teachers at two large state universities are personalizing their classroom environment, and reports on preliminary findings on the relationship of these in-class behavior variables and the perceptions of teacher effectiveness by both supervisors and students. Results obtained in the two studies indicate that teacher effectiveness ratings obtained from supervisors and students are significantly correlated with the degree to which verbal interactions in the language classroom are personalized.