Abstract: complexity of the text and the cultural origin of the story affected comprehension. The native language readers were better able to understand unadapted English and the story based on American folklore. Implications of this study for teaching and for materials selection and design are discussed. The effects of the language complexity and the culturally determined background of a text on reading comprehension have always been recognized as elements of concern in the selection of reading materials for foreign language learners and in the evaluation of their reading comprehension. Research with native language readers has shown that the amount of language complexity has less effect on reading comprehension than the organization of ideas in the passage. Schlesinger (1968) found that the length and structure of English sentences had no effect on comprehension of readers who tended to use lexical meanings to understand the sentences. Meyer's work (1975) showed that organization in English prose influenced what idea units were recalled from a passage by native language readers, but there were no significant differences between recall of units with and without the presence of linguistic cues. In their discussions of the problems in reading comprehension of ESL

Abstract: This article presents a sequence of activities to teach reading strategies. In implementing the sequence, the classroom teacher will carry out the following steps: (1) teach students to think aloud while reading; (2) identify students' reading strategies; (3) help students to understand the concept of “strategy” and to recognize that some strategies are successful, some unsuccessful, and others only “seemingly” successful; (4) help students to identify strategies thaat they use to decode native language texts containing unknown words; (5) help students to identify strategies that they can use to decode foreign language texts containing unknown words; (6) provide instruction/practice/integration for specific reading strategies; and (7) identify students' reading strategies and compare them to the strategies students used before instruction. Suggestions derived from the authors' experiences with the activities are provided.

Abstract: to experience a rather sudden and magic improvement in reading ability as they enter the third year of foreign language study.1 To this point, they have been carefully nursed with small amounts of structurally graded texts containing high frequency vocabulary. Now, after three to four semesters of spoon feeding, they are usually started without mercy on the chronological study of the literary masterworks of the target language in a survey course. Suddenly, instructors expect a transition from the stage of painful word-by-word decoding of contrived written dialogs or narrations dealing with simple everyday events to comprehension of relatively lengthy literary texts containing highly abstract vocabulary, complex syntactical patterns, and sophisticated style and content which even an educated native speaker often cannot read without effort. To continue my analogy of reading instruction to infant nutrition: we do not just expect to wean the students from the bottle to the cup; we hand them knife, fork, and the uncooked ingredients for a gourmet meal and expect them to enjoy a Lucullan repast. The major goal of most u.s. undergraduate foreign language programs is to develop familiarity with and appreciation of the literature of the target language culture. Anyone contesting this assertion should examine course offerings and sequences in current college catalogs. Yet, somewhere in our program sequence we seem to lose sight of the fact that reading comprehension is at the very base of literary reception and appreciation, and that training for reading comprehension must come before training in literary criticism. McGuigan notes that many fourth quarter German students at the University of Minne-

Abstract: International communication—an indisputable desideratum—does not presuppose, let alone prescribe, a single international language. But it has long been held as virtually axiomatic that this would constitute the ideal basis. For over a century,1 and especially in the past quarter-century, we have come to believe that this goal is within reach, with English rating a greater world spread than any other language in recorded history. Yet within the past decade, many people have started to wonder: people concerned with international affairs in general as well as members of the profession engaged throughout the world in teaching English.

Abstract: Language policy has a direct impact on TESOL and should therefore be considered as a crucial factor in planning for ESOL programs. Provided here is specific information on how an ESOL curriculum might be planned which is more compatible with the existing language policy in various countries around the world. Classification is divided into four major categories, based on the status of the English language: English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL), English as an additional language (EAL), and English as a language of wider communication (ELWC). Each of the four classes is described and compared and suggestions are offered about which types of ESOL curricula and methodologies are most applicable to each category. A framework is offered for future analysis.

Abstract: A listening program to be truly beneficial must adapt to the role which ESL/EFL listening will play in the career of each student. This article considers various materials and methods for preparing students to comprehend spoken English in different career contexts in English speaking countries. The five stages of listening development are delineated for career contexts to illustrate the different listening comprehension proficiency levels needed for different careers. Practically all ESL/EFL programs have a listening component. However, the instruction given in the listening class does not always fit the listening needs of the learners. This article suggests some reasons for this. Students of a foreign language appear to pass through various somewhat indeterminate stages as they learn to comprehend native speakers. One can arbitrarily distinguish five stages of foreign language listening development, but it is probably impossible to tell just when a learner passes from one stage to the next-and probably equally impossible to identify the stage for any learner at a given time. In addition, a learner may be at one stage in comprehending certain kinds of subject matter but at a different stage for other kinds. For purposes of analysis and discussion here, however, it is assumed that these five stages are both definable and recognizable.

Abstract: Through pantomime, language learners can be encouraged to participate orally in classroom activities without feeling the pressure of having to perform. The teacher, in acting out simple situations before the class, assumes the role of the performer. The students work together to interpret the gestures, losing their sense of individuality in their intense concentration on the action. The immediacy of the pantomime experience guarantees spontaneous utterances of authentic communicative value.

Abstract: Two basic distinctions concerning language use and language learning underlie the concepts of English as a second and foreign language. On the one hand there is the distinction between native speakers of a language and foreign learners of a language, made use of with reference to foreign language learning. The two are usually contrasted using a model of proficiency as a basis for comparison, and the goal of one (the foreign language learner) is said to be to approximate the speech usage of the other. A further distinction is the contrast between native users of English and non-native users, or between native varieties of English and non-native varieties. This distinction is not based on differences in proficiency but on different norms of English usage in native and non-native settings. This paper examines the concepts of language proficiency, of second and foreign language, of native and non-native speakers, and considers such distinctions with reference to the status of English in the Republic of Singapore.

Abstract: with emphases on transnational issues and cultural awareness is refocusing foreign language teachers' attention on the goals and objectives of culture in K-12 second language education. Some educators perceive second language courses as a kind of "automatic" or de facto global education. This perception is erroneous because: 1) culture goals and objectives are not, as Gail Robinson has indicated, integrated into either the instructional or evaluative practices in foreign-language classrooms;1 and 2) foreign language teachers are devoting far less than the one-third of the instructional time global educators are seeking in the various disciplines, spending somewhere in the neighborhood of 10 percent of their instructional time on culture according to Gertrude Moskowitz2 and Anne Nerenz.3 Whether or not individual foreign language teachers wish to become involved with global education, the status of the teaching of culture in foreign languages requires concerted professional attention, especially in view of the fact that repeated surveys of students have emphasized both speaking and culture. Because global education encompasses all disciplines in the K-12 curriculum, because it is the first school movement that offers foreign languages an opportunity to assume an integrated and meaningful role in the total school curriculum, or simply because our teaching of culture is in critical need of substantive improvement, the foreign language profession should take a lesson from Robert Leestma and establish a ten-year agenda for integrating culture into K-12 foreign language offerings.4 The result might be the globalization of some K-12 foreign language programs, but the goal

Abstract: Allie Fox hates America and everything about the 20th century, so he decides to take his wife and two sons to live a better and simpler life in the Honduran jungle. However, when he starts to go mad, life for his family becomes much more frightening than ever before. "Penguin Readers" is a series of simplified novels, film novelizations and original titles that introduce students at all levels to the pleasures of reading in English. Originally designed for teaching English as a foreign language, the series' combination of high interest level and low reading age makes it suitable for both English-speaking teenagers with limited reading skills and students of English as a second language. Many titles in the series also provide access to the pre-20th century literature strands of the National Curriculum English Orders. "Penguin Readers" are graded at seven levels of difficulty, from "Easystarts" with a 200-word vocabulary, to Level 6 (Advanced) with a 3000-word vocabulary. In addition, titles fall into one of three sub-categories: "Contemporary", "Classics" or "Originals". At the end of each book there is a section of enjoyable exercises focusing on vocabulary building, comprehension, discussion and writing. Some titles in the series are available with an accompanying audio cassette, or in a book and cassette pack. Additionally, selected titles have free accompanying "Penguin Readers Factsheets" which provide stimulating exercise material for students, as well as suggestions for teachers on how to exploit the Readers in class.

Abstract: SINCE THE LATE 1960s, the trend away from audiolingualism and its habit formation approach to foreign language acquisition has contributed to an examination of student learning styles and to a renewed interest in the use of language as communication. These directions in language teaching gradually changed the focus of pedagogical strategies regarding error avoidance and correction. Instead of being expected to produce error-free utterances in the foreign language, today's students are encouraged to communicate meaningful ideas in the target language. Moreover, many language educators suggest that not only do language learners necessarily make mistakes when they communicate, but systematic analysis of errors can provide insights into the process of language acquisition. Teachers are reminded that people make errors when learning any new skill, but that they learn from their mistakes when they receive constructive and supportive feedback. Faced with this emphasis on communicative competence rather than on consistent oral accuracy, teachers need to re-evaluate former instructional procedures for conducting class activities. In turn, teacher trainers have the responsibility of planning new materials for pre-service and in-service workshops that will provide practical experience in the analysis and correction of students' oral errors. In this paper, I shall first examine the current state of research on error correction and analysis, using this survey as justification for training language teachers in these areas. I shall then discuss its implications for the classroom. Finally, I shall propose several practical activities as an encouragement for teachers to experiment with new approaches in dealing with errors.

Abstract: A MAJOR TOPIC IN READING RESEARCH, IN BOTH English and foreign language study, has been the assessment of the difficulty levels of instructional materials. Numerous studies have provided language educators, researchers, and textbook authors with theoretical and practical information concerning various readability techniques. Reading difficulty of selected materials can be determined in two diverse ways: first, through formulas, using as input only the syntactic and semantic elements extant in the material under examination;1 second, by measuring the readability of selected materials by testing a sample population and evaluating the mean scores of the group for each particular passage. Selection of either readability technique will depend upon the factors of time, availability of subjects, and the degree of accuracy required in assessing materials for target groups.2 This article is intended to familiarize readers with procedures utilized in the assessment of reading difficulty with particular emphasis on the development of a new and innovative instrument for use with Spanish materials. A survey of the literature indicates that little significant progress has been made in the area of the readability of prose in Spanish since the development of the Spaulding formula in 1956. Today's language educators require an objective and efficient method to determine the suitability of available materials for classroom use.

Abstract: It is commonly accepted that the English language is vastly more used nowadays than it was in the past, and that the expansion of its use continues apace. Yet paradoxically, as this one single language expands, the diversity of forms within the total envelope of “English” also increases: “more use of English” is accompanied by “more different kinds of English”. The increase in diversity of forms brings in its wake a number of new anxieties and problems for the users of English, especially for non-native speakers of the language, and above all for those concerned with language education.

Abstract: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA shares at least two characteristics of its existence with the cow in India. The cow is held in reverence by many Indians who believe that its worship confers on its devotees--even on its superstitious devotees-the infinite wealth of the unseen world, the paraloka. The worship of the English language is similarly believed by many to confer on its devotees the nearly infinite riches of this world, the ihaloka. Secondly, the cow is in a state of perpetual decline in India; its average yield of milk is steadily going down. We worship the cow, but we do not think it absolutely necessary to look after it. However, we will not allow it to die in peace. The English language in India has been likewise steadily declining for a long while, but we are resolved to let it neither die nor flourish. It has a Shakespearian existence:

Abstract: This article sets out to present techniques which any adult reader, regardless of text, method, language level or language, can apply to achieve comprehension of a text.' These techniques are predicated on the assumption that reading comprehension is a function of active analytical restructuring of information on the part of the reader, as opposed to the more commonly held assumption that reading comprehension represents the reader's passive registration of information in the mode presented in the text. The research and theory supporting the notion that reading comprehension results from analytical processing has a venerable tradition which is currently enjoying a renaissance.2 The most recent descriptions of the analytical reading process are emerging primarily in psycholinguistics and discourse analysis. In identifying the inadequacies in the passive reading model, this literature shares several fundamental assumptions which serve as significant points of departure for this paper. 1) Active control of isolated structures and vocabulary is no guarantee of reading comprehension. Such grammatical elements remain a collection of unrelated data until they are integrated into the communicative framework, the message of the text.3 2) The ability to translate from the foreign language to the native language is not, in itself, a guarantee of reading comprehension.4 3) The use of the interrogative question, the "who, what, when and where" questions, is not an efficient way to foster or check reader comprehension of a text because they isolate new bits of information and thereby remove them from their meaningful context.5 By focussing on detail with "wh"-questions, the textbook or teacher may actually interrupt the reader's efforts to put segments or details of the text into a meaningful whole. Only the analytical or inferential "why" question (why does the reader agree or disagree?) calls for reader interpretation of textual meaning. Hence students who can answer the "who, what, when, where" recognition questions are frequently unable to frame a response to the "why" question if it demands an analysis of information not specified, but only implied, in the text. 4) To categorize the reading task as a "skill," unrelated to listening, speaking, and writing tasks, teaches and reenforces a distinction which may well be unproductive in a communicative setting.6 If reading is taught as a separate "skill," classroom practice focusses on the isolated surface detail of the text ("who, what, when and where" questions). Only if reading is taught as a part of the total language learning process

Abstract: THE STUDY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES HAS TRADItionally been an integral part of the academic programs of secondary and postsecondary institutions In the late 1960's, traditional foreign language courses began to move into the background of the college curriculum, apparently the victim of the trend away from required courses and the competition for space in the undergraduate curriculum As a consequence, foreign language enrollments declined sharply for a number of years' Recent surveys, however, show that the decline in enrollments may be ending2 Colleges and universities are restoring the foreign language requirements that were dropped earlier and a renewed student interest has been observed The Chronicle of Higher Education reports that languages are being offered to new groups of students3 Unfortunately, no data exist on the extent to which minority students may be part of increased enrollments in college foreign language classes In the last two decades, federal and state

Abstract: This article focuses on problems of cross-culture communication between patients and psychiatrists of varying socio-linguistic and foreign language backgrounds, in an in-patient psychiatric community facility Issues of diagnosis, integration into the ward treatment program, and progress in the course of treatment can in some cases be traced to specific socio-linguistic problems, which have previously gone undiagnosed The clinical impact of three types of communication breakdowns are evaluated: (1) overt language differences; (2) linguistic ambiguity; and (3) linguistic insecurity A need exists for further research in identification and assessment of language insecurity, and for modification of therapeutic procedures to deal with inter-dialectic communication difficulties