Abstract: New varieties of English have developed in various parts of the world in recent years in countries where English functions as a second. rather than a foreign language. The processes by which distinctive varieties of English develop in such settings are described. The functional and linguistic characteristics of the processes of nativization and indigenization are discussed with reference to several nativized varieties of English. A distinction is made between two contrasting norms for speech events in these varieties of English, rhetorical and communicative norms Rhetorical norms are repertoires of English used for speech events which have the functional status of Public, Formal, High. Distant, Impersonal, etc., Communicative norms are speech repertoires used for speech events which have the contrasting functional status of Private, Informal, Low, Intimate etc., Five different linguistic processes commonly used to mark a shift from rhetorical to communicative norm in several new varieties of English are discussed in terms of the employment of variable linguistic rules. Acquisition of rhetorical norms is related to socialization. Implications are discussed for language teaching and for creative literary writing in, English.

Abstract: This article proposes that the current teaching-learning view of second language instruction be replaced by a learning-teaching view. In the former, the focus is upon the teaching act, which is often imprecisely linked to an undescribed phenomenon called ‘learning;’ in the latter view, the focus is upon the learning act, and teaching procedures are generated by and support specific learning processes. The author argues for a teacher role in research on learning processes and views a teacher's task as twofold: (1) to discover what students do as they perform foreign language tasks, and (2) to implement procedures in which strategies of skillful students provide a basis for remediation of strategies of unskillful students.

Abstract: OVER THE PAST TWENTY YEARS, linguists, psychologists, and educators have achieved an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the process of native oral language acquisition by children1 For educators, one of the most important results of these years of research has been the implications of child language acquisition for the teaching and learning of aspects of language use, such as reading and foreign language study Recent models of the reading process, such as those proposed by Kenneth and Yetta Goodman and by Frank Smith,2 have incorporated extensions from children's oral language development to children's acquisition of reading In foreign language instruction, the code-cognitive approach and the results of error analysis and interlanguage studies also are based, in part, on implications from research on native language acquisition3 The implications of linguistic and psycholinguistic studies of children's oral native language acquisition have proven to be fruitful sources for the development of models, methods, and even materials in the teaching and learning of reading by children and foreign languages by adults College level writing courses provide another relevant situation for which such implications should be considered As with foreign language learning, college students studying writing are adults attempting to master an aspect of language use As

Abstract: A recent trend in research in first and second language acquisition has been renewed interest in the nature of the linguistic input to which language learners are exposed. As regards formal second language learning by adults, a number of studies have examined the oral language which foreign language teachers use in the classroom to communicate with and teach their students. It now seems advisable to expand the scope of these inquiries, since many if not most formal language learning settings involve the use of written text materials which by themselves and through their influence on instructional activities define the nature of the language which learners hear, see and presumably use in forming hypotheses about the target language. The research reported on in this paper involved a syntactic analysis of a sample of ESL readers. The following questions about the nature of the linguistic input provided by these sources were examined: 1) Are these texts graded in syntactic complexity? 2) Do readers which are presumably written for learners at the same level of proficiency present material which is of equivalent syntactic complexity? 3) How can the readability of ESL materials be measured, and how might the relationship between syntactic complexity and readability be clarified?

Abstract: This publication is the sixty-first in the CAL·ERIC/CLL Series on Languages and Linguistics. The material in this publication was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters. Prior to publication, the manuscript was submitted to the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages for critical review and determaintion of professional competence. This publication has met such standards. Points of view or opinions, however, do not necessarily represent the official view or opinions of either the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages or the National Institute of Education.

Abstract: Scholarly studies which cross disciplinary boundaries often present the same problems of understanding as do texts from a foreign language. Even if we know the grammar and the vocabulary of the foreign language, meaning may escape us because we are unable to recreate the context of the text, the author's purposes, or his intellectual environment, or because it may not be clear to us "what game is being played." The authors of this article come from the disciplines of ethnomusicology and linguistics, respectively, and are writing for an audience of theorists of Western music. The possibilities for misunderstandings or non-understandings are vast, and yet we feel that "intruding upon each other's fields" can be, for all concerned, one of the most fruitful ways of stimulating new insights into the nature of music. "The game being played" here is to see what principles of coherence operate in a genre of music radically different from Western music. Understanding what Western music is not is surely one of the basic elements in understanding what it is. Since this article presents reading difficulties whose sources differ (unfamiliarity with Javanese gamelan music, unfamiliarity with the genre srepegan, unfamiliarity with the type of formalism of this presentation and the motivation for the formalism), we have included below a brief outline, a map,

Abstract: When students use a foreign language in spontaneous communication, they produce varying frequencies of different error types. This article presents a method for classifying, coding, and recording oral and written errors systematically for the purpose of (a) evaluating the quantity and quality of information in samples of students' communication, (b) diagnosing specific needs of individual language learners, (c) developing individualized instructional materials, and (d) deciding which student errors to correct first. The author also discusses several suggestions for using the method for second language acquisition research.

Abstract: A questionnaire survey was used to find out whether the language barrier was an important hindrance to researchers. The linguistic ability of users of the literature appeared to vary with age, those in the upper age groups being more proficient; also the linguistic ability of social scientists appeared to be appreciably lower than that of scientists and technologists. Many researchers had come across papers in foreign languages that they would like to have read, but often no action to obtain a translation was taken. Very few people tried to locate existing translations and many were dissatisfied with the lack of information about existing services. The situation in general is not satisfactory and has not improved since a previous survey on similar lines was carried out in 1965.

Abstract: IN LIGHT OF DECREASED REQUIREMENTS for foreign language study, concern has been expressed about lowered enrollments in college language courses. At large universities and colleges, a key figure affecting these enrollments is the teaching assistant, who usually teaches in the beginning language courses. Often a T.A. is the first language teacher encountered by college students. That experience may very well determine whether or not students continue their language study. Thus, for the goal of maintaining enrollments and for the goal of developing positive attitudes toward language study, it seems crucial that teaching assistants receive thorough training and supervision.

Abstract: In an effort to link the acquisition of the foreign language more closely to its natural and functional usage, a method was developed to make the learning of vocabulary a personal and creative challenge for the student at the intermediate and advanced levels of high school or college language classes. Closely monitored by the teacher, each student is responsible for doing his or her daily ‘word-watching,’ and choosing the words he or she will learn, according to his or her needs. At the end of a four-step learning process, vocabulary is used actively and serves as a measure of progress in communicative ability.

Abstract: IT HAS NOW BEEN OVER A GENERATION since Rosa Parks' historic refusal to move to the back of the bus triggered one of the several cataclysmic forces that fundamentally altered black-white relations in our time. White America sought to deal with the newly released black energy in several systematic ways. Key among them were the acceleration of research on blacks and the implementation of social and educational engineering designed to acculturate blacks into the dominant ideology. With the national spotlight on black people, speech and language scholars, like researchers in other disciplines, went to work. Not that there had been no research and study of the unique speech of blacks before the 1960s. Indeed, throughout the nearly four-hundred-year history of African people in the United States, there have been commentaries attesting to the uniqueness of black speech, ranging from such early examples of "speaking Negro" as those recorded by Justice Hathorne in 1692 and Sarah Kemble Knight in 1705;1 to the more detailed linguistic description of what Harrison termed "Negro English" in 1884;2 to the 1933 discussion by Bloomfield-surely the most critical twentieth-century scholar in American linguistics, aside from Noam Chomsky-of the "creolized English of the southern slaves whose speech may have influenced local types of sub-standard or even of standard English";3 to, finally, a kind of historical culmination in Turner's fifteen-year pioneer study of Gullah.4 (Gullah Black English is spoken by rural and urban blacks living in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia.) What is new about contemporary research in black linguistics is that it was cultivated by and financed within a sociopolitical context in which such research was to be the basis for social and educational intervention strategies. On the one hand, there was the assertion that black speech was structurally and functionally adequate; on the other hand, it was deemed socially and educationally inadequate. Make no mistake about it, the research data on black communication was not used to extend

Abstract: In 1967-68 the total enrollment in Latin classes in the public schools f Phila delphia was 490. By June, 1976, over 14,000 pupils in 125 elementary schools alone were receiving daily instruction in Latin. Furthermore, as late as 1974 notices were being placed of the need for Latin teachers in Philadelphia, even in a time of a growing teacher glut. A 1971 evaluative study may explain this revival. During that school year more than 4,000 fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade pupils of all backgrounds and abilities received 15 to 20 minutes of daily Latin instruction. The performance of the fifth-grade Latin pupils on the vocabulary test of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills was one full year higher than the performance of control pupils who had not studied Latin. Both the Latin group and the control group had been matched for similar backgrounds and abilities. Furthermore, a survey of pupils, parents, principals, and classroom teachers showed that this Latin program had wide acceptance and support. In fact, in 1975 popular demand restored a 50% budget cut for the Latin elementary school program. The cut had been scheduled because for the 1975-76 school year the district faced a budget deficit of $27 million. Currently there are plans to extend the program to all elementary schools in the district.1 Why is there a growing emphasis on Latin in the elementary school (commonly known as FLES ? Foreign Languages in the Elementary School ? Latin)? What can such a "far-out" subject add to an already crowded elementary school cur riculum? The purpose is to help pupils, especial ly the lowest-achieving ones in inner-city schools, improve their English language skills: to increase their vocabulary and to stimulate linguistic awareness.2 Since about 50% of English words are derived from Latin, especially "abstract terms used in communicating on a high level of generality,"3 knowledge of Latin helps in expanding English vocabulary, especially the limited vocabulary of inner-city chil dren. Just knowing a few Latin numerals, for instance, opens unheard-of vistas: unilateral, unanimous, unicorn, uniform; duplex, dual, duel; tripod, trident, triceps, trivia; quadrupeds, quadrilateral,

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