Embedded value

Abstract: Measurement of value creation is not simple. The increase in shareholder value will not necessarily mean its creation, because the creation of shareholder value can be defined more or less rigorously. The article focuses attention on market metrics of value: market value added (MVA) and total shareholder return (TSR), as measures most directly related to the concept of creation of value for shareholders. It also describes a distinction between the concept of value creation and value creation for shareholders, discussing their excess forms as well.

Abstract: Financial consulting agencies and stock markets, generally, have used lately new approaches to measure company’s economical and financial performances. The principle that lays at the basis of these new approaches is represented by the creation of value for shareholders, the increase of their value, but not in any conditions. The accent is laid on the source of the new value that was created, on the value quality and, especially, on the risk taken, the traditional measures of performance being replaced by the term financial value added. From the category of financial added values the most frequently used for evaluating management performances is the economic value added, which has a significant impact on the organizational behavior. Economic value added is superior to any traditional measure used to evaluate value or performance because it recognizes the cost of invested capital and implicitly through it relates to the risks of a commercial company’s activity. The objective of maximizing economic value added is the consequence of a financial strategy, while the maximization of measures based on profitability may lead sometimes to unwanted situations. In this paper I proposed a model of factorial analysis of the economic value added which includes the key factors for creating economic value added. The main advantage of this model is represented by the identification of growth engines for economic value added.

Abstract: Economic Value Added has been discussed as a financial metric since its creation by Stern Stewart & Co. in the 1980s. Closely tied to value investing, which was pioneered by Benjamin Graham in the late 1920s and early 1930s, E.V.A. has been applied both as a tool for valuation by investors and as a tool for managers to measure the creation of value. While including and allowing for the cost of capital in its calculation, E.V.A. also integrates the present value of future cash flows. This paper discusses not only the origins and application of E.V.A. but also explores the stock prices over seven years of ten companies who had the greatest Market Value Added (the sum of the present value of expected future E.V.A.) and the ten companies who returned the lowest M.V.A. as described by James L. Grant in Foundations of Economic Value Added. In addition, two companies who use E.V.A. as a management tool will be explored to help to determine its validity both as a tool for investors and managers. Economic Value Added 4 The Validity of Economic Value Added as a Metric for Determining Intrinsic Value Introduction There is a constant need for investment managers and individual investors alike to determine companies that will maximize the wealth of their shareholders. Likewise, managers within companies are always looking for ways to better evaluate their decisions in regards to capital expenditures, investments, and many other factors that go into the ever-changing, fluid process of providing owners with their required rate of return. Evaluating the financial strength of a company, while involving many set principles of finance, is viewed as more as an art than a science. As such there are many different ways that an investment manager, individual investor, or a company’s management can view the financial statements of a particular company along with its ratio analysis. While financial ratio analysis is certainly valid and useful when viewed through cross-sectional (comparing a firm to other firms within the same industry) and time series analysis (comparing a firm’s progress over time), there are differences between the accounting figures that a financial statement provides and the reality of a company’s financial activities. Accounting principles, while necessary for consistency, rely on historical costs, and as such are not necessarily accurate to the real costs of a company. The result of this is that many companies that appear to be profitable according to accounting standards are in reality destroying wealth. In his 1995 Harvard Business Review Article “The Information Executives Truly Need,” Drucker states, “What we call profits, the money left to service equity, is usually not profit at all. Until a business returns a profit that is greater than its cost of capital, it operates at a loss. Never mind that it pays taxes as Economic Value Added 5 if it had a genuine profit. The enterprise still returns less to the economy than it devours in resources...Until then it does not create wealth; it destroys it” (as cited in Shapiro, 2007, p. 79). These concepts of creating wealth and identifying value resulted in the creation of the financial performance metric of Economic Value Added. Background Value Investing was pioneered by Benjamin Graham who in 1934 published the book “Security Analysis” along with David Dodd. Graham also published “The Intelligent Investor” in 1949. These two publications have impacted countless modern investors including perhaps the most famous investor of the modern era, Warren Buffet. However, Graham did not always enjoy success. In the late 1920s, Graham managed several millions of dollars. Of this investment portfolio, $2.5 million was invested in stocks and bonds. Graham held a long position on these investments, hoping that they would increase in price. In addition to the $2.5 million that Graham had invested in a long position, he also held a short position for the same amount. Also, there was $4.5 million dollars that Graham had invested in a long position, utilizing margin for much of this investment. The risky portfolio that Graham managed incurred significant losses in the stock market crash of 1929 and 70% of his investment was lost between the years 1929 and 1932. However, as stock prices continued to fall, Graham noticed that one third of stocks were trading at values less than their share of the companies net current assets. This undervaluing of stock prices became the foundation of value investing and helped Graham earn 17% annualized between the years 1929 and 1956 (this included the three year period when the market crashed and Graham’s investments lost 70% of their value) (Grant, 2007, p. 112). Economic Value Added 6 While the main tenant of value investing is rather straightforward, finding stocks that are prices at below their value, there are different schools of thought as to what the definition of value is. The traditional approach to finding the intrinsic value of a company is a calculation of the present value of a firm’s future free cash flows (Harper, 2008). Free cash flow is calculated as: Net Income + Amortization and Depreciation Changes in Working Capital Capital Expenditures Free Cash Flow This calculation of cash flow is a better metric than that of Net Operating Profit After Tax which will be discussed below. Once free cash flows have been forecasted into the future, they must be discounted to the present value. Financial theory supports the belief that a dollar today is worth more than a dollar received in the future because of the fact that an amount of money can be invested and earn interest. In the same way, money or cash that is to be received in the future must be discounted to find a present value. There are two difficulties or inconsistencies that can arise when calculating the present value of the future free cash flows of a company. The first is that there can be different forecasts of a company’s future free cash flows. Secondly, those future free cash flows could be discounted at different rates by different investors. For example, Investor A may require a rate of return of 10%. Investor B may require a rate of return of only 5%. For simplicity’s sake one might assume that the future value of the investment is forecasted to be $1,000 in one year. The greatest amount that Investor A would be willing to pay for Economic Value Added 7 the investment would be $909.09. According to the same information, Investor B would be willing to pay a maximum of $952.38 Calculation: Investor A: 1,000/(1+10%) or 1,000/1.10 = 909.09 Investor B: 1,000/(1+5%) or 1,000/1.05 = 952.38 According to these figures, if the particular investment being discussed were priced at $925.00, Investor B would think that the investment was under priced and therefore be willing to purchase it. In contrast, Investor A would see the investment as overpriced as it would not give him or her the required rate of return. This simplistic example shows some of the difficulty or inconsistencies of calculating the present values of the future cash flows. It is also important to note that in the given example, there is an assumption that both investors calculated the future free cash flows in the same way; the only place that they differed was with their required rate of return. This will certainly not always be the case. The second method for calculating the intrinsic value of a company is the Economic Profit Approach which is calculated as follows: Intrinsic Value = Invested Capital + Present Value of Future Economic Profits These economic profits represent the remaining profits after the cost of capital has been taken into account (Harper, 2008). In an interview with Money’s Eric Schurenburg, Christopher Browne discussed his thoughts on value investing and its practicality and successful track record. Browne, who is the author of “The Little Book of Value Investing,” follows Graham’s principle of buying cheap stocks in managing the three mutual funds of Tweedy Browne, which were Economic Value Added 8 founded by his father. He mentions that low price to earnings and price to book ratios can indicate that a company is trading below its intrinsic value and is in a position in which it provides a greater degree of safety and return (as cited in Schurenburg, 2008, pp. 76-77). The Price to Earnings, or P/E, ratio of a stock is calculated by dividing the price per share of a stock by the earnings per share of a stock. Historically, Price to Earnings ratios have hovered around 15 indicating that each dollar of earnings results in an average price of $15. Therefore, a company with $3 of Earnings Per Share would, according to the average, sell for around $45. If a company sells for $90 but only produces $3 of earnings per share, its Price to Earnings Ratio would be 30 and could be an indication that a stock is overpriced. In contrast, if a company’s stock is selling for $30 per share and is able to produce earnings per share of $3, its Price to Earning ratio of 10 could indicate that the stock is under-priced. The second financial metric that Browne mentions in his interview is the Price to Book Ratio. The metric is calculated by dividing a company’s price per share by the book value of the company. Book value is defined as the assets of a company minus its liabilities, this is also known as Owner’s Equity (Little, 2008). While by itself, a low Price to Earnings or Price to Book ratio does not guarantee that a stock is under-valued, these metrics can be used as a screening tool to find potential value stocks to invest in. Another important aspect of value investing that Browne mentions is the idea of patience. Value investing is typically a long-term investment strategy. Rather than looking for a company that is small and has vast future growth potential, value investors are interested in finding under-priced stocks and then must be willing to wait for them to correct and be accurately priced in the capit

Abstract: The XXI century was marked by the convergence and harmonization, this century is distinguished in that it lays the foundation of accounting actuarial, which is characterized by up to date values and actuarial calculations . Actuarial accounting is reflected best in insurance system. In the market economy, insurance system is on one hand a means of protecting the business and property of citizens, on the other hand a business that generates profits. From this context, we can say that the subject of actuarial accounting is the measurement and recognition of assets and result of the change in time value of money. Time is an important variable considered in any economic decision investing and financing.