Diglossia

Abstract: Editor's Preface. Introduction. 1. Societal Multilingualism. 2. Diglossia. 3. Qulaitative Formulae. 4. Statistics. 5. Quantitative Analysis. 6. Language Attitudes. 7. Language Choice. 8. Language Maintenance and Shift. 9. Language Planning and Standardization. 10. Language-Planning Cases. 11. Vernacular Language Edition. Bibliography. Index.

Abstract: Preface. 1. Introduction:. Scope and Focus. Method. Historical Background. Significance. Organization of the Book. 2. Basic Terms, Concepts, and Issues:. Patterns of Communication. Communicative Functions. Speech Community. Communicative Competence. The Competence of Incompetence. Units of Analysis. Categories of Talk. Language and Culture. Social Structure and Ideology. Routines and Rituals. Universals and Inequalities. 3. Varieties of Language:. Language Choice. Diglossia and Dinomia. Code--Switching and Style--Shifting. Code--Markers. Varieties Associated with Setting. Varieties Associated with Activity Domain. Varieties Associated with Region. Varieties Associated with Ethnicity. Varieties Associated with Social Class, Status, and Role. Varieties Associated with Role--Relationships. Varieties Associated with Sex. Varieties Associated with Age. Varieties Associated with Personality States and 'Abnormal' Speech. Non--Native Varieties. 4. The Analysis of Communicative Events:. Relationship of Ethnographer and Speech Community. Types o f Data. Survey of Data Collection and Analytic Procedures. Identification of Communicative Events. Components of Communication. Relationship among Components. Elicitation within a Frame. Analysis of Interaction. Sample Analyses of Communicative Events. Further Illustrations of Ethnographic Analysis. 5. Contrasts in Patterns of Communication:. Comparative Rhetoric. Historical Development. Ethnographic Perspective. Establishing Validity. Situated Event Analysis. Other Data Collection and Analytic Procedures. Cross--Cultural Communication. Concepts of 'Face' . Constructing an Unseen Face. 6. Attitudes toward Communicative Performance:. Methodology. Attitudes Toward Language and Language Skills. Attitudes Toward Languages and Varieties. Stereotyping. Appropriateness. Language and Identity. Language Maintenance, Shift, and Spread. Taboos and Euphemisms. 7. Acquisition of Communicative Competence:. Early Linguistic Development. Social Interaction. Language and Enculturation. Definition of Stages and Roles. Communicative Strategies. Formulaic Expressions. Nonverbal Communication. Peer Influence and Extended Acquisition. Speech Play. Formal Education. Multilingual Contexts. Children's Beliefs about Language. 8. Politeness, Power, and Politics:. Language and Politics. Language and Social Theories. Linguistic Signs of Power. Linguistic Performances of Power. Linguistic Resistance and Rebellion. Language Planning. Responsibilities and Limitations. 9. Conclusion:. References. Index of Languages. General Index.

Abstract: Preface.Acknowledgments.1. Introduction.Multiple Voices: The Word from China.1.1 Introduction.1.2 Bilinguals and their languages.1.3 Views about bilinguals.1.4 Learning a second language.1.5 Where did bilingualism come from?.1.6 Linguists: what they know and don't know.1.7 Why so many languages?.1.8 The rationale for many languages today.1.9 Attitudes about language.1.10 Linguistics and bilingualism.1.11 Why bilingualism matters to you.1.12 Bilingualism: Practical considerations.1.13 How the book is organized.1.14 Words and phrases to remember..2. What's a Language? What's a Dialect? What "Social Work" do they do?.Multiple voices: the word from italy.2.1 Introduction.2.2 What counts as a language?.2.3 Problems with mutual intelligibility.2.4 Dialects as groupings under a language.2.5 The written language and dialects.2.6 Identifying the standard dialect.2.7 Who speaks a dialect?.2.8 Summing up.2.9 Words and phrases to remember..3. Who is a Bilingual? What Factors Promote Bilingualism?.Multiple voices: the word from ecuador.3.1 Introduction.3.2 Who is a bilingual?.3.3 Defining bilingualism.3.4 Factors promoting bilingualism.3.5 Conditions of displacement.3.6 Summing up. 3.7 Words and phrases to remember..4. Language Maintenance and Shift. multiple voices: the word from algerians in france.4.1 Introduction.4.2 Three useful models of community organization.4.3 Allocation of varieties.4.4 Diglossia and domains.4.5 Maintenance or shift?.4.6 Representative case studies.4.7 The younger generation and bilingualism.4.8 Separating language maintenance from cultural maintenance.4.9 Summing up.4.10 Words and phrases to remember..5. Ideologies and Attitudes.multiple voices: the word from papua new guinea.5.1 Introduction.5.2 Language attitudes vs. cultural ideologies.5.3 Power and the economy of language.5.4 How languages identify groups.5.5 Language attitudes.5.6 Theoretical models and the expression of attitudes.5.7 Language ideology.5.8 Summing up.5.9 Words and phrases to remember..6. The Social Motivations for Language Use in Interpersonal Interactions.multiple voices: the word from turks in the netherlands.6.1 Introduction.6.2 Linguistic varieties as social indices.6.3 More than meets the ear.6.4 Language varieties absorb meanings from situations.6.5 Speakers have their own motivations for choices, too.6.6 Models to explain conversational choices.6.7 What accommodation means.6.8 Markedness Model: another model of social motivations.6.9 Code choices within a Conversation Analysis approach.6.10 Summary on explaining bilingual choices.6.11 Summing up.6.12 Words and phrases to remember..7. Inter-Cultural Communication.multiple voices: the word from indians in england.7.1 Introduction.7.2 Languages are different and so are cultures.7.3 Dividing up societies as individualistic or collectivistic.7.4 High- and low-context messages.7.5 Five areas of potential differences.7.6 Is silence golden?.7.7 Ideas about "good" conversational routines differ.7.8 The faces of politeness.7.9 How to ask for something in different cultures.7.10 Cross-cultural ideas about power differentials.7.11 Managing cross-cultural conflicts.7.12 Summing up.7.13 Words and phrases to remember..8. Lexical Borrowing.multiple voices: the word from kenya.8.1 Introduction.8.2 Lexical borrowing.8.3 Cultural and core borrowings.8.4 Core borrowings.8.5 Less direct borrowings.8.6 How borrowed words are integrated.8.7 Morphological integration.8.8 Nouns versus other categories.8.9 What borrowings can tell us.8.10 Summing up.8.11 Words and phrases to remember..9. What Happens to Grammars in Bilingual Contacts.multiple voices: the word from palestinians in the u.s.9.1 Introduction.9.2 Codeswitching.9.3 A model for classic codeswitching.9.4 How other approaches to codeswitching from the MLF model.9.5 Singly-occurring words as borrowings or codeswitches?.9.6 Conclusions on singly-occurring words in codeswitching.9.7 Larger Embedded Language phrases in Matrix Language frames.9.8 The 4-M model.9.9 Convergence and attrition.9.10 Creation of pidgins and creoles.9.11 Pidgins.9.12 Creoles.9.13 Summing up.9.14 Words and phrases to remember..10. Psycholinguistics and Bilingualism.multiple voices: the word from hungary.10.1 Introduction.10.2 Themes in psycholinguistics and bilingualism.10.3 Classifying bilinguals.10.4 Validity and experimental methodologies.10.5 The mental lexicon.10.6 Level of activation.10.7 Testing for selective access.10.8 Summary on experiments.10.9 Models of language production.10.10 Memory.10.11 Bilingualism, the brain, and aphasia.10.12 Summing up.10.13 Words and phrases to remember..11. Age of Acquisition and Success with a Second Language.multiple voices: croatian-australians in australia.11.1 Introduction.11.2 Introducing child bilingualism.11.3 Successes in child bilingualism studies.11.4 But is bilingualism an advantage or a disadvantage?.11.5 Does early acquisition affect some systems the most?.11.6 Learning a second language later.11.7 Age-related issues and the brain.11.8 Second language acquisition (SLA) as formal instruction.11.9 Summing up.11.10 Words and phrases to remember..12. Language Policies and Globalization.multiple voices: the word from an american in norway.12.1 Introduction.12.2 What are the parts of language planning?.12.3 Status planning.12.4 Corpus planning.12.5 Acquisition planning.12.6 English in the world.12.7 The European Union and Europe's new industry: translating.12.8 Summing up.12.9 Words and phrases to remember..13. Conclusions.multiple voices: the word from haitians in new york usa.13.1 Some themes to remember.13.2 Guidelines for understanding speakers in relation to their languages..References.Index of Authors.Index of Languages.Index of Subjects.

Abstract: The Arabic language presents researchers and developers of natural language processing (NLP) applications for Arabic text and speech with serious challenges. The purpose of this article is to describe some of these challenges and to present some solutions that would guide current and future practitioners in the field of Arabic natural language processing (ANLP). We begin with general features of the Arabic language in Sections 1, 2, and 3 and then we move to more specific properties of the language in the rest of the article. In Section 1 of this article we highlight the significance of the Arabic language today and describe its general properties. Section 2 presents the feature of Arabic Diglossia showing how the sociolinguistic aspects of the Arabic language differ from other languages. The stability of Arabic Diglossia and its implications for ANLP applications are discussed and ways to deal with this problematic property are proposed. Section 3 deals with the properties of the Arabic script and the explosion of ambiguity that results from the absence of short vowel representations and overt case markers in contemporary Arabic texts. We present in Section 4 specific features of the Arabic language such as the nonconcatenative property of Arabic morphology, Arabic as an agglutinative language, Arabic as a pro-drop language, and the challenge these properties pose to ANLP. We also present solutions that have already been adopted by some pioneering researchers in the field. In Section 5 we point out to the lack of formal and explicit grammars of Modern Standard Arabic which impedes the progress of more advanced ANLP systems. In Section 6 we draw our conclusion.