Abstract: The 14 chapters of this book on data collection present information on the following: the introduction of sampling; deciding what data to collect; censuses; sample surveys; the case study; some aspects of survey design; the questionnaire; the team; the collection of the data; data preparation and processing; the presentation and release of the data; surveys of households and household members; data on agricultural holdings; and monitoring evaluation surveillance and forecasting. The major emphasis is on data collection by sample survey. The development of sampling theory is comparatively new and it provides a logical conceptual framework by which estimates of the characteristics of a population can be inferred from the results of an examination of only a sample of that population. The special difficulties of conducting surveys in developing countries derive from their socioeconomic structure. These countries are in a period of rapid transition demographically economically and culturally. They normally have high but changing birth and death rates and there is considerable mobility. Agriculture is 1 of the major subjects investigated by sample surveys but it presents particular problems. The mailed questionnaire or the diary of events will be workable in only a few inquiries such as those involving firms or an educated minority. As no general solutions can be provided the objective is to present a description of the problems that identifies their common features along with a discussion of the techniques that have been developed to deal with them. The basic message is to keep it simple. 1 application of this rule concerns content. The 2nd aspect of the simplicity rule is technical.

Abstract: Part I. Social Work and Research 1. Understanding the World 2. The Contribution of the Scientific Approach to Social Work Part II. Generation of Inquiry Theory 1. Developing a Problem for Research 2. Considerations for a Useful Research Problem 3. Current Knowledge 4. Formulating Hypotheses and Questions 5. Explication of the Problem Part III. The Social Context of Research 1. The Profession of Social Work 2. Theory as Framework for Research 3. The Site of the Research 4. The Social and Political Context 5. Protection of Human Subjects Part IV. Dimensions of Research Design 1. The Investigator's Control Over the Phenomena Studied 2. Knowledge-Building Purposes and Functions 3. Methodological Orientation 4. Establishing Causality 5. Threats to Internal Validity Part V. Naturalistic Designs 1. Designs with Exploratory-Descriptive Functions 2. Designs with Explanatory Functions Part VI. Single-System Experiments 1. The Case Study 2. The Basic Time Series (AeMDRVOABAeMDNMO) Design 3. Withdrawal Reversal Designs 4. The Multiple Baseline Design 5. Generalization (External Validity) Part VII. Group Experiments 1. Uncontrolled Single Group Experiment 2. Strengthening the Design 3. Equivalent Group Designs 4. Nonequivalent Group Designs 5. The Experimental Intervention 6. Generalization from Group Experiments 7. Laboratory Experiments: Analog Studies of Intervention Effects Part VIII. Sampling 1. The Nature and Purposes of Sampling 2. Samples and the Research Question 3. Basic Types of Samples 4. Generalization from Probability Samples 5. Size of Sample Part IX. Measurement 1. Definition of Measurement 2. Role of Measurement 3. Levels of Measurement 4. Criteria for Evaluating Measurement Procedures Part X. Data Collection 1. Selecting a Data Collection Method 2. Bias in Data Collection Methods 3. Self-Report Methods 4. Observation 5. Available Data Part XI. Quantitative Data Analysis 1. Quantitative Data 2. Categorization and Coding 3. Univariate Analysis 4. Ivariate Analysis 5. Inferential Statistics 6. Multivariate Analysis 7. Analysis of Time Series Data 8. Meta-Analysis Part XII. Qualitative Research 1. Modes of Qualitative Research 2. The Methods of Qualitative Research Part XIII. Assessment 1. Research Procedures in Assessment for Generalist Practice Part XIV. Evaluating Outcome at Different Levels of Practice 1. Program Levels and Evaluation Designs 2. Outcome Criteria 3. From Criteria to Data 4. Sources and Types of Data 5. Variations in Outcome Measures Part XV. Study of Intervention Characteristics 1. Data from Practitioners'Reports 2. Data from Clients 3. Direct and Electronic Observation 4. Change Process Research 5. Intervention Analogs Part XVI. Intervention Design and Development 1.The Design and Development Paradigm (D&D) Appendix 1. The Library Research Process: Mary Jane Brustman Appendix 2. Guidelines for Preparing a Research Report

Abstract: This brief work describes in nontechnical language the operations involved in conducting a sample survey and aspects of assessing the reliability of survey results. It is intended to provide a better appreciation of survey data for nonspecialists who use survey results. Surveys obtain information from samples of limited size in which each member of the population has a known probability of selection in excess of zero so that results can be generalized to the larger population with confidence. Information is obtained through standardized questions to obtain a profile of the population. Respondents are never identified and results are presented in summaries such as tables. The size of the sample depends on the degree of reliability required. Surveys are conducted for a wide variety of purposes when insufficient data exsit to fill a specific information need. The majority of survey results are never exposed to the public. Surveys can be classified according to size target group data gathering methodology or content. They may utilize open or closed questions and may involve more than 1 round of interviewing. The 1st step in conducting a survey is to define objectives as specifically as possible. Planning of survey methodology involves formulating rules for defining and locating persons eligible for inclusion selecting the data gathering methodology designing and testing the questionnaire developing procedures to minimize or control response errors designing and selecting the sample hiring and training interviewers planning management of nonresponses and completing tabulation and analysis. The questionnaire must contain well defined concepts and clear phrasing and should not be overly lengthy. Quality control of fieldwork is achieved in several ways most frequently through observation or a reexamination of a subsample of interviews by supervisors or high level personnel using established procedures to identify obvious errors or omissions in the data. 4 pitfalls that can invalidate survey results and disorient users are failing to follow an appropriate sampling procedure not pretesting field procedures lack of insistence on follow-up of nonresponse cases and inadequate quality control. 2 types of errors may be distinguished sampling errors and nonsampling errors. Calculation of sampling errors is possible if methods based on probability are used in selecting the sample. Information on sampling errors should be made available to all users of the data. Nonsampling errors include effects of refusals and persons not at home of respondent giving incorrect information errors of coding or processing of data and sampling errors committed in the office. A flow diagram of the survey may be helpful in estimating costs.

Abstract: Research on corporate social reporting should move on from an initial phase of observation and description to a phase aimed at improvement of available techniques and actual practice. The appropriate criterion for improvement is the development of information systems directly useful to management in monitoring and, where appropriate, altering corporate social performance. Future research should be aimed at (1) developing better techniques of data collection and analysis, and (2) analyzing managerial use of social performance information, and the organizational changes that result.

Abstract: The Social Psychiatry Research Unit at the Australian National University has developed an interview procedure for assessing for research purposes the current state of a person's social relationships — the Interview Schedule for Social Interaction (ISSI). The present paper sketches the origin of the instrument and describes its format and content. The instrument has been used in a sample survey of Canberra, Australia. Data from this survey forms the basis for an analysis of the structure of social interaction. The scoring of data from the interview schedule is discussed, and scores for the answer categories of each question are derived using multivariate analysis of contingencies (MAC). In Part 2 of the paper we shall present tests of hypotheses about the structure of social relationships, using confirmatory factor analysis. The Interview Schedule for Social Interaction, and this analysis based upon it, are believed to constitute the first attempt to give a detailed, ordered and structured account of the field of social relationships, based on representative, large-sample, standardised data collection.

Abstract: This article presents an overview of the important stages and inherent problems of survey research and defines survey-related terminology. Particularly emphasized are the characteristic elements of survey research: survey designs, sampling theory, questionnaire development, and data collection procedures.

Abstract: The paper deals with the problem of measuring the effectiveness of the running of a bus service along a particular route to a predetermined schedule and set of fares. Potential performance measures are categorized as efficiency measures, which evaluate the quality of system management and operation, or effectiveness measures that determine the quality of the service, the utilization of the service and its cost-effectiveness. The measure of service performance should reflect management objectives, should not require extensive and expensive data collection and should be capable of monitoring changes in conditions. The author reports on the indicators used by British bus operators and assesses the effectiveness of each measure. No single optimum measure is found, but those measures which relate most closely to the aspects of service most important to passengers (reliability, availability of a seat) require extensive data collection for valid statistical analysis. It is suggested that the extent of late running approaches is a 'cost-effective' measure in that it can be related to reliability and passenger waiting times, and it requires only moderate data collection. (TRRL)

Abstract: The evolution of the Centralized Cancer Patient Data System, a cooperative venture of the 21 comprehensive cancer centers in the United States, and its structure at the end of 3 years of data collection are described. Functions of the data system are detailed in terms of input and output. It is concluded that the short-run objective of establishing a data system to provide high-quality patient data that ae 21 comprehensive cancer centers in the United States, and its structure at the end of 3 years of data collection are described. Functions of the data system are detailed in terms of input and output. It is concluded that the short-run objective of establishing a data system to provide high-quality patient data that ae 21 comprehensive cancer centers in the United States, and its structure at the end of 3 years of data collection are described. Functions of the data system are detailed in terms of input and output. It is concluded that the short-run objective of establishing a data system to provide high-quality patient data that are comparable among cancer centers has been largely accomplished. Moreover, the very process of setting up the national data system has benefited the participating centers by upgrading their individual cancer registries. For the future, the goal is to realize the research potential of this new cooperative data collection mechanism, as well as the accumulating data themselves. Progress toward the long-term goal is just beginning.

Abstract: Validity problems of empirical data have been neglected to a large extent in the transportation planning field. This paper illustrates the impact that choice of survey method has on the validity of the data. It shows that the recorded data depend directly on the method selected for obtaining them. An uncritical application of survey methods is not justifiable and, in fact, can lead to incorrect survey results. Basic research in the area of empirical survey methods is long overdue. An international exchange of experiences in this regard is considered most beneficial, as illustrated by this paper. The exchange of information and insights is often hampered because the survey methods used for specific investigations tend to be inadequately documented. This deficiency makes subsequent assessment of data validity very difficult, if not impossible. Furthermore, the use of such data without consideration of the underlying survey method is dangerous. The paper cites examples where the results of analyses can be manipulated by means of different survey methods. Greater efforts should be made to integrate data collection with the research effort performed on the basis of these data. (Author)

Abstract: The results of a feasibility study related to the development of a Cost/Construction Methods Improvement Program at the Forked River Nuclear Generating Station are presented. The model is based upon a systems approach to methods improvement whereby data from work sampling, stopwatch, and time-lapse photography studies are integrated to locate and describe in detail various barriers to improved construction productivity. Three important principles around which a cost improvement program should be modeled are presented. The problem identification phase that relies on work sampling is explored. The data collection procedures are presented in detail. The program utilizes the crew approach that focuses data collection efforts on several crews as opposed to the tour approach that samples an entire site or building area. The advantages of this approach are highlighted. Procedures for developing and analyzing detailed categories, work characterization charts, management-related categories and labor utilization factors are described.

Abstract: An effective data collection method for evaluating software development methodologies and for studying the software development process is described. The method uses goal-directed data collection to evaluate methodologies with respect to the claims made for them. The data to be collected is based on the changes made to the software during development. To insure accuracy of the data, validation is performed concurrently with software development and data collection. Validation is based on interviews with those people supplying the data. Feasibility of the data collection method is demonstrated by its application to five different projects in two different environments. (NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). All of the NASA projects were monitored as part of NASA's Software Engineering Laboratory). Results concerning the data collection methodology show that the methodology is feasible and useful, and that data validation is a necessary part of change data collection. Without it, as much as 50% of the data may be erroneous. Results concerning the projects show that the NRL methodology is effective in meeting several of its claims, especially those concerning ease of change of the resulting software. The NASA and NRL software showed several similar characteristics. As an example, for all projects, more than half of all changes took an hour or less to design. In both environments most errors involved the design and implementation of individual programs, rather than interfaces among programs. None of the projects studied showed any tendency towards a ripple effect resulting from changes. Other results include distributions showing sources of change, sources of errors, difficulty of finding causes of errors, frequency distributions of changes according to number of components changed, changes according to subsystem, difficulty of change according to source of change, and source of error according to programmer.

Abstract: This paper describes one method by which data from a computer based health information system are used to screen the ambulatory care experiences of family practice residents. The steps in the evaluation process are discussed. Data collection techniques and definition of the reference population against which comparisons among the residents are made are also explained. The evaluation process is based on initial observations to answer progressively more specific questions about the resident-patient encounters. This approach is acceptable to faculty for several reasons: (1) data are timely and require minimal extra effort for collection, (2) resident discrepancies are easily identified, (3) data summaries are concise and easy to interpret, (4) cost effectiveness of resident performance can be evaluated, and (5) data are organized around a patient and the encounters he or she has had with all residents providing care.

Abstract: This paper discusses the development of a system to organize, store, retrieve, and correlate data pertaining to chemicals and their biological and environmental effects. The particular problems of data identification, acquisition, classification, and automation are discussed in relation to existing data sources and methods of data collection and analysis. The problems of computer software development are also addressed, and a design overview of the system is presented.

Abstract: Respondent and investigator-based approaches to measurement in survey-type research are described. While the former, based on standardized questionnaires, have dominated sociological research, they are of limited use for the measurement of any phenomena of complexity or emotional depth. It is essential to develop an alternative tradition of measurement based on intensive interviews and investigator-based ratings. Postgraduate teaching needs to concentrate on three issues: (1) ways of developing interview schedules and rating scales; (2) methods of testing the reliability and validity of measures; (3) conveying something of the skills required for interviewing and rating.

Abstract: Errors in data collection and preparation for use, model specification and estimation as well as prediction procedures are recognized as direct causes for uncertainty in the analysis and prediction of travel behavior. These errors interact in a complex manner and often produce potentially large errors in behavioral analysis and prediction. This paper's objective is to provide an overview of these errors, to evaluate the implications of the errors for transportation planning and analysis, and to suggest actions to reduce errors in travel prediction and to enhance the effectiveness of transportation decision making in the face of errors.

Abstract: A computer-based data management system was set up for the collection, storage and retrieval of soil survey data. The method and terminology of the soil descriptions were standardized for site and horizon data collection in the field introducing numerical and letter codes. The descriptive data as well as analytical data were stored and managed in the files of the program package SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), which can be utilized even by those who have no special training or knowledge of computer techniques. SPSS carries out not only data management but also statistical analyses. Data can be screened for users' requirements and the profile description in a conventional text form is generated through the “DECODE” program completed by the authors. A large number of survey data has become accessible to users, employing standard terminology and description.