Cryogenics

Abstract: Magnetic refrigeration has been viewed as primarily a cryogenic technology because the necessary high magnetic fields are most easily provided by superconducting magnets. However, some of the largest magnetocaloric effects are exhibited by gadolinium-based alloys near room temperature. Ames Laboratory and Astronautics Corporation of America have been collaborating to apply such materials to large-scale commercial and industrial cooling near room temperature. Astronautics has designed and operated a reciprocating magnetic refrigerator that uses water as a heat transfer fluid. The device uses the active magnetic regeneration concept of recent cryogenic devices, but in contrast to the cryogenic case, the heat capacity of the fluid in the pores of the regenerator bed is comparable to that of the solid matrix. Using a 5 T field, the refrigerator reliably produces cooling powers exceeding 500 watts at coefficients of performance of 6 or more. This record performance puts magnetic refrigeration in a class with the best of current technology, vapor cycle refrigeration, without having to use volatile, environmentally hazardous fluids.

Abstract: History.- The Cryogenic Engineering Conference: 1954-1984.- Resource Availability.- Helium Prospects for the Future: Is There a Crisis?.- The Outlook for U.S. LNG Imports.- Applications of Superconductivity - Magnets for Fusion and Physics Research, Test Facilities.- Thermal Performance of the MFTF Magnets.- Single Magnet Test Results of the First EBT-P Development Magnet.- Design, Construction, and Testing of a Large Bore Superconducting Magnet Test Facility (SMTF) at the University of Missouri-Columbia.- Advanced High-Field Coil Designs: 20 TESLA.- Development of a 12-Tesla Multifilamentary Nb3Sn Magnet for MFTF-B.- A Single-Layer Race-Track Magnet Using a Niobium-Tin Conductor.- A Superconducting Magnet for Solid NMR Studies.- Construction and Testing of the Nb3Sn Coils for the High-Field Test Facility.- Development of a 500-mm ID Pulsed Magnet for Testing of High-Current Pulsed Conductors.- Applications of Superconductivity - Components of Electric Power Systems.- Cryo-Electric Testing of a 1000 MVA Superconducting Power Transmission System.- Design and Operation of the 30 MJ Superconducting Magnetic Storage System on the Bonneville Power Administration Bus.- Advanced Applications of Superconductors.- Applications of Superconductivity - Electronics and RF Structures.- A Josephson Voltage Standard Using a Superconducting Loop Containing Multiple Junctions.- Progress on the Development of NbZr Radio Frequency Band Reject Filters.- Lead Technology for Superconducting Resonant Cavities.- Applications of Superconductivity - Cryogenic Techniques.- Experiments and Analyses of Thermal Characteristics and Stress/Strain Distributions of a 0.5 MJ Pulsed Coil.- Training Behavior and Acoustic Emission of Superconducting Magnet.- Acoustic Emission behavior in the 0.5 MJ Pulsed Magnet at Osaka University.- The Design, Assembly, and Test of a Cryostat for a Superconducting Motor.- Modular Thermostatic Vapour-Cooled Current Leads for Cryogenic Service.- Applications of Superconductivity - Magnet Stability.- Transition and Recovery of a Cryogenically Stable Superconductor.- Natural Circulation and Cable Conductors.- Passive Quench Arrest by a Chimney Induced Deluge at Every Quench Front.- Finite-Difference Modeling of the Cryostability of Helium II Cooled Conductor Packs.- Pressure Rise Analysis in Superconducting Coils during Dumping.- Consequences of Shorted Turns in a Superconducting Magnet.- Heat Exchangers, Heat Transfer to He I and Liquid Nitrogen.- Effect of Heat Transfer from Ambient on Cryogenic Heat Exchanger Performance.- Performance of Cryogenic Heat Exchangers with Heat Leak from the Surroundings.- Heat Transfer to Subcooled He I.- Light Induced Cooling of a Heated Solid Immersed in Liquid Helium I.- Improvement in the Heat Transfer of a Gas Filled Thermal Switch.- Film Boiling Heat Transfer to Liquid Nitrogen: A Comparison of Transient and Steady State Measuring Techniques.- Heat Transfer in He II.- Heat Transport in Forced Flow He II: Analytic Solution.- Transient Heat Transfer in Superfliud Helium - Part II.- Heat Flow in a He II Filled Fin.- Heat Flow in He II in Microbore Channels.- Refrigeration for Superconducting and Cryopump Systems.- Control and Operation Cost Optimization of the Hiss Cryogenic System.- The Helium Cryogenic System for the Superconducting High-Luminosity Insertion at the CERN-ISR.- Cooldown of a 30-MVA Superconducting Synchronous Condenser.- Refrigeration System for the Fermilab Superconducting Collider Detector Solenoid.- Forced Two-Phase Cooling of the TPC Superconducting Solenoid.- The Doublet III Neutral Beam Injector Cryosystem.- Liquid Helium Rotational Reservoir Management in a 20-MVA Superconducting Generator.- Analytical Tools for LHe Distribution System Design.- Automation of a Cryogenic Facility by Commercial Process Control Computer.- Refrigeration of Cryogenic Systeas - Fermilab Tevatron.- Commissioning of the Tevatron Satellite Refrigeration System.- Control of the Tevatron Satellite Refrigeration System.- Fermilab's Satellite Refrigerator Expansion Engines.- Fermilab Satellite Refrigerator Comprerssors with Oil and Moisture Removal Systems.- Fermilab Central Helium Liquefier Operations.- Refrigeration and Liquefaction.- An Entropy Flow Optimization Technique for Helium Liquefaction Cycles.- An Optimum Cold end Configuration for Helium Liquefaction Cycles.- Combined Cold Compressor/Ejector Helium Refrigerator Cycle.- Helium Refrigerator with Features for Operation at Supercritical Pressure.- Some Experimental Results for an Automatic Helium Liquefier.- Miniature Cryogenic Expansion Turbines-a Review.- A Robust Thrust Bearing for Cryogenic Turbines.- Kinetics of a Gas Adsorption Compressor.- Instability in He II Refrigeration.- Dilution and Magnetic Refrigeration, Cryocoolers, Refrigeration for Space Applications.- The Pursuit of Absolute Zero.- New Design Criteria for the Dilute Channel in Dilution Refrigerators.- Double Acting Reciprocating Magnetic Refrigerator: Recent Improvements.- The Helium Magnetic Refrigerator I: Development and Experimental Results.- The Helium Magnetic Refrigerator II: Liquefaction Process and Efficiency.- The Carnot Type Magnetic Refrigeration below 4.2 K: Computer Simulation.- Experiment to Determine Properties of Packed Particle Beds and Regenerators at Cryogenic Temperatures.- Temperature Stability Limits for an Isothermal Demagnetization Refrigerator.- A Fast Cool-Down J-T Minicryocooler.- Low-Temperature Expansion Pulse Tubes.- Magnetically Suspended Stirling Cryogenic Space Refrigerator: Test Results.- Cryogenic Applications - Space Science and Technology.- IRAS Cryogenic System Flight Performance Report.- Infared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) Superfluid Helium Tank Temperature Control.- Design and Performance of Transfer Assembly for the Infared Telescope for Space Lab 2.- Long Term Cryogen Storage in Space: A Feasibility Study.- Sintered Plug Flow Modulation of a Vapor-Liquid Phase Separator for a Helium II Vessel.- Superfluid Porous Plug Performance.- Zero-g Experiments with a He II Active Phase Separator for Space Application.- Passive Orbital Disconnect Strut.- Development of a Para-Orthohydrogen Catalytic Converter for a Solid Hydrogen Cooler.- Helium Hammer in Superfluid Transfer.- Supercritical Hydrogen Expulsion Utilizing an External Pressurization System.- Ground Support Equipment for the Loading of High Pressure and Density Cryogenic Helium.- Heating Cryogenic Helium with a Solid Propellant Gas Generator.- Cryogenic Applications - Storage and Transfer of Cryogenic Fluids.- Reducing Boiloff Losses in Cryogenic Storage Systems to the Minimum.- Calculation of the Pressure Rise in the Fermilab 19000 L Helium Dewar.- Discrete Cooling of Supports and Multi-Layer Insulation in Helium Dewars.- Thermal Overfill, and the Surface Vaporisation of Cryogenic Liquids under Storage Conditions.- Rollover Test in LNG Storage Tank and Simulation Model.- Operating Experience with a High Capacity Helium Pump under Supercritical Conditions.- A Liquid Helium Piston Pump with a Superconducting Drive.- A Rotating Liquid Helium Transfer System.- A Comparison of Flow Rates and Pressure Profiles for N-Sequential Inlets and Three Related Seal Configurations.- The Analysis and Development of a Floating LNG Emergency Transfer Hose.- Feasibility Tests of Pipeline Pigs for Cryogenic Pipelines.- Cryogenic Instrumentation and Data Acquisition.- Investigation of Transducers for Large-Scale Cryogenic Systems in Italy.- Pulsed Current Resistance Thermometry.- Helium Flow Measurement Using Ultrasonic Technique.- Characterization of Anemometric-Type Flowmeters for Cryogenic Helium.- A Test Circuit for Calibration of Liquid and Supercritical Helium Flowmeters.- Automated Data Acquisition for Large Cryogenic Systems.- Properties of Fluids.- Status of Thermophysical Properties Data for Pure Fluids and Mixtures of Cryogenic Interest.- Measurement and Correlation of Isochoric P-V-T Behavior of a Binary H2-CH4 Mixture from Near Ambient to Cryogenic Temperatures and Pressures to 700 ATM.- Three-Phase Liquid-Liquid-Vapor Equilibria in the Methane + N-Butane + Nitrogen System.- The Critical Liquid Volume Fraction Used to Represent and Predict Liquid-Vapor Coexistence Densities of Ethylene.- Thermodynamic Properties of Ethylene at Saturation.- Evaluation of Mixing Rules for VLE Calculations.- Calculation of Excess Enthalpies of Mixing for Binary Gaseous Mixtures.- Effect of Cohesion Parameter on VLE Calculations.- Prediction of High Pressure Vapor-Liquid Equilibria with a Mixing Rule Using the Asog Group Contribution Method.- The High Solubility of Water in Liquid Nitrogen and Other Cryogenic Liquids.- Desorption of Benzene-Toluene Mixtures from Activated Carbon.- Miscellaneous Cryogenic Applications.- Biomedical Applications of Cryogenics in China.- A 650 mm Long Liquid Hydrogen Target for Use in a High Intensity Electron Beam.- Indexes.- Author Index.

Abstract: NIST has published at least two references compiling cryogenic material properties. These include the Handbook on Materials for Superconducting Machinery and the LNG Materials & Fluids. Neither has been updated since 1977 and are currently out of print. While there is a great deal of published data on cryogenic material properties, it is often difficult to find and not in a form that is convenient to use. We have begun a new program to collect, compile, and correlate property information for materials used in cryogenics. The initial phase of this program has focused on picking simple models to use for thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and specific heat. We have broken down the temperature scale into four ranges: a) less than 4 K, b) 4 K to 77 K, c) 77 K to 300 K, and d) 300 K to the melting point. Initial materials that we have compiled include oxygen free copper, 6061-T6 aluminum, G-10 fiberglass epoxy, 718 Inconel, Kevlar, niobium titanium (NbTi), beryllium copper, polyamide (nylon), polyimide, 304 stainless steel, Teflon, and Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. Correlations are given for each material and property over some of the temperature range. We will continue to add new materials and increase the temperature range. We hope to offer these material properties as subroutines that can be called from your own code or from within commercial software packages. We will also identify where new measurements need to be made to give complete property prediction from 50 mK to the melting point.