Contextualism

Abstract: Social class is shaped by an individual’s material resources as well as perceptions of rank vis-a `-vis others in society, and in this article, we examine how class influences behavior. Diminished resources and lower rank create contexts that constrain social outcomes for lower-class individuals and enhance contextualist tendencies—that is, a focus on external, uncontrollable social forces and other individuals who influence one’s life outcomes. In contrast, abundant resources and elevated rank create contexts that enhance the personal freedoms of upper-class individuals and give rise to solipsistic social cognitive tendencies—that is, an individualistic focus on one’s own internal states, goals, motivations, and emotions. Guided by this framework, we detail 9 hypotheses and relevant empirical evidence concerning how class-based contextualist and solipsistic tendencies shape the self, perceptions of the social environment, and relationships to other individuals. Novel predictions and implications for research in other socio-political contexts are considered.

Abstract: The primary focus of this article is on the presentation of wisdom research conducted under the heading of the Berlin wisdom paradigm Informed by a cultural-historical analysis, wisdom in this paradigm is defined as an expert knowledge system concerning the fundamental pragmatics of life These include knowledge and judgment about the meaning and conduct of life and the orchestration of human development toward excellence while attending conjointly to personal and collective well-being Measurement includes think-aloud protocols concerning various problems of life associated with life planning, life management, and life review Responses are evaluated with reference to a family of 5 criteria: rich factual and procedural knowledge, lifespan contextualism, relativism of values and life priorities, and recognition and management of uncertainty A series of studies is reported that aim to describe, explain, and optimize wisdom The authors conclude with a new theoretical perspective that characterizes wisdom as a cognitive and motivational metaheuristic (pragmatic) that organizes and orchestrates knowledge toward human excellence in mind and virtue, both individually and collectively

Abstract: Contents: Preface to the Third Edition. Preface to the Second Edition. Preface to the First Edition. Human Development: Facts or Theory? Historical Roots of Human Development Concepts and Theories. Philosophical Models of Development. The Nature-Nurture Controversy: Implications of the Question How? The Continuity-Discontinuity Issue. Resolving the Nature-Nurture Controversy: T.C. Schneirla and the Concept of Levels of Integration. Developmental Systems Theories. Developmental Systems Theories: The Sample Case of Developmental Contextualism. Life-Span, Action Theory, Life-Course, and Bioecological Perspectives. Nature Approaches to Human Development: Behavioral Genetics. Nature Approaches to Development: The Sample Case of Intelligence and the Work of Sir Cyril Burt and Arthur Jensen. Nature Approaches to Development: Konrad Lorenz and the Concept of "Instinct." Nature Approaches to Development: Sociobiology. Cognition and Development: From Neo-Nativism to Developmental Systems. Stage Theories of Development. The Differential Approach. The Ipsative Approach to Development. Methodological Issues in the Study of Human Development. Applied Developmental Science.