Abstract: The present disclosure is directed to a computer assisted system which enables a computer user with less than fully developed computer skills to enable and implement a number of subroutines. The present disclosure is more particularly directed to a user not accustomed to operating a computer, and further not accustomed to operating a computer which presents a multitude of symbols on the screen which are used to open various subroutines. The disclosed system, which is preferably operated by means of voice commands, therefore improves the performance of the user so that the subroutines can be fetched more readily, operated more effectively to obtain the desired results or output, and then easily closed or terminated. The disclosed system is further simplifies computer start up operations.

Abstract: Senior adults can use computers for entertainment, enhancement of daily functions, education, creative endeavors, and business obligations. Computer training programs enable seniors to increase productivity, learn skills, enhance self‐esteem, and boost short‐term memory. Electronic mail, online services, and the Internet encourage socialization and the sharing of experiences and information. Disabled and ill seniors can use technology that recognizes and adapts to their special needs. Senior adults are capable of using computers at work and at home, and they need opportunities to develop computer skills.

Abstract: Are the large measured wage differentials for on-the-job computer use a true return to computer skills, or do they just reflect that higher wage workers use computers on their jobs? We examine this issue with three large cross-sectional surveys from Germany First, we confirm that the estimated wage differential associated with computer use in Germany is very similar to the US differential Second, we also measure large differentials for on-the-job use of calculators, telephones, pens or pencils, or for those who work while sitting down We argue that these findings cast some doubt on the literal interpretation of the computer use wage differential as reflecting true returns to computer use or skill

Abstract: By means of content analysis, this study examines 2,500 employment advertisements for academic librarian positions in 1974, 1979, 1984, 1989, and 1994 to investigate patterns and trends in the demand for computer-related skills for academic librarians over a period of two decades. The study identifies basic computer-related qualifications required for different types of positions, and tracks changes in the demand for these qualifications over time. It also tests the relationship among size of library, type of position, and degree of demand for computer-related skills. Using a quantitative approach, the study measures the changes brought by computer applications in terms of what qualifies an individual to be an academic librarian.

Abstract: This study looks at students in introductory computer science courses at two major universities in order to understand some of the reasons behind the recent sharp decline in the number of female computer science majors. The study focuses on gender differences in preparation and skills and the implications of these differences on success in the introductory course.The study showed that despite the proliferation of computers in many areas of daily life, female students still enter introductory computer science classes with weaker programming skills and less involvement with computers than their male counterparts.Prior familiarity with programming concepts emerged as the most useful predictor of success in the course and a high level of success was difficult to achieve without this prior knowledge. The mean grades were comparable for men and women but the women were underrepresented among the highest achievers.This study suggests that the above factors combine to place women at a disadvantage in introductory computer science classes and that some adjustments to the pace and/or structure of this course might be necessary to attract and retain more women in the major.

Abstract: This research investigated coping strategies used by computer users who experienced varying degrees of computer-stress. Eighty-three college student computer users completed a research questionnaire with information about: computer use, computer knowledge, self-esteem, level of computer-stress, somatization/anxiety, stressful computer problem, and use of coping strategies. Based on scores derived from the Computer Hassles Scale, the students were classified as either experiencing high or low levels of computer-stress. Statistical analyses of differences revealed that high computer-stress users had lower self-rated computer abilities, lower self-esteem, and reported higher levels of somatization and anxiety. High computer-stress users, in contrast to low computer-stress users, significantly employed at higher levels confrontive, self-controlling, and accepting responsibility coping strategies in dealing with computer problems. The coping strategies employed by high computer-stress users were primarily emot...

Abstract: The academic literature suggests that a positive relationship exists between the experience levels with computers and favorable attitudes toward computers College students with little or no experience with computers have more anxiety when required to take a computer literacy course than those students who have had previous computer experience To be competitive in nearly any business or profession in the future, computer literacy is likely to be one of the essential keys to finding success (Long, 1982; Wesley, Krockover & Hicks, 1985) So what seems to be needed are some strategies and/or insights that might link computer-related experiences with enhanced students' computer-related experiences with enhanced students' computer-related attitudes For instance, Arnez and Lee (1990), Chen (1986), Fann, Lynch and Maurranka (1989), and Loyd and Loyd (1989) reported that computer experience has been found to be positively related to attitudes toward, and interest in, computers From findings such as these, it seems that computer-related experience could be critically associated with various computer-related attitudes and behaviors To examine if this is the case, this study sought to determine whether having more computer experience is actually related to (1) less computer anxiety, (2) more computer confidence, (3) greater computer knowledge, and (4) a better liking for computers too To determine if these notions were correct, each of the variables cited above was correlated with other variables, such as amount of computer experience, as well as average number of hours of computer usage per week in order to determine how they are related to another Method A total of 157 undergraduate students (55 females & 102 males), in a required computer literacy class at a large midwestern university volunteered to participate in the study These subjects ranged from 18 to 33 years of age; 75 percent (n = 117) were classified as traditional students (less than 24 years of age), while 25 percent (n = 40) were classified as non-traditional students (over 23 years old) All participants completed the Computer Attitude Scale (CAS), developed by Loyd and gressard (1984) The CAS is a highly reliable (Loyd & Loyd, 1985; Pope-Davis & Twing, 1991) 30-item Likert-type instrument that assesses attitudes toward computers and computer usage The items on the CAS are descriptive of working with and/or learning about computers, and the alternatives associated with each of these items ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree The CAS contains three subscales: The "confidence" (one's confidence in his/her ability to use or learn about computers), "anxiety" (anxiety &/or fear of computers), and "liking" (liking of computers or enjoying working with computers) The alpha reliability coefficient for computer anxiety, computer confidence, computer liking and total score were 90, 91, 92, and 95 respectively These estimates were closely related to those reported by Loyd & Loyd (1989), Pope-Davis & Twing (1991) and Koohlang (1998) In addition to these subscale scores, students also evaluated their overall knowledge of computers (on a five point scale ranging from "No Knowledge" to "Extremely Knowledgeable") They also indicated the time span of their computer experience (on a five point scale ranging from "No experience", to "Three plus years experience"), as well as the average number of hours they spend weekly using a computer Results A series of Pearson product-moment correlations were performed on these data A summary of these analysis is presented in Table 1 Discussion Analysis of the findings indicate that good things happen as students increase computer experience hours per week spent with a computer Notably, both of these variables were found to be significantly related with reduced computer anxiety, enhanced computer confidence, greater computer knowledge, and increased liking for computers …

Abstract: Some of the most prominent policies in schools throughout the industrialized world today relate to the rapid introduction of computers. The most common rationale for introducing educational microcomputing is the concept of ‘computer literacy’. It is a concept, however, which is so poorly defined and delineated, and so unclear as to purpose and procedure, that it may best be investigated as a form of ideology. The justificatory arguments for computers in classrooms are primarily vocational or practical. They are based on assumptions that computers will be pervasive in the workplace of the future, or that they are soon going to be ‘everywhere’. The more purely pedagogical arguments are secondary: that learning about computers is a worthwhile experience in and of itself, and that computers can be useful productivity tools for other academic work. Drawing upon empirical evidence from an evaluation of computer use in two Canadian high schools, this paper shows how a critical treatment of computer lite...

Abstract: Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) courses are attracting students with weak computer communication skills. This study examined what happened to these students when they enrolled in a CMC course that required high levels of peer interaction. It was anticipated that students with weaker skills would miss important instructional events, have lower levels of task-relevant contributions, have less influence on group products, and engage in less demanding learning activities. But lack of technical skill had a marginal effect on participation, much less than prior knowledge of course content. The generalizability of this good news is limited by several contextual factors that supported participation of students with weak communication skills: student maturity, provision of a CMC coach, the ethos emerging from the structure and content of the course, and the low skill threshold required for participation.

Abstract: This paper reports on a case study which was undertaken to study issues fundamental to a computer-assisted, multicultural education. During the study, a group of Asian American middle-school students corresponded with culturally dissimilar students using telecommunications. The data reported reflect the Asian American students' experience. Results concerning three themes of the research are discussed: computer knowledge, learning processes, and communication patterns. Findings indicate that students of different ethnic backgrounds may have different attitudes about and knowledge of computers, cross-cultural communication patterns, and learning processes when working with computers. These differences should be taken into account when planning a computer-assisted, multicultural curriculum.

Abstract: This paper analyzes the prevailing definitions of literacy and computer literacy. It is shown that similar factors confound our understanding of both these terms. In addition we argue that the term computer literacy is highly inappropriate. In order to clarify the meaning of these terms we suggest a hierarchy of definitions, from the operational level to the broader socio-political definitions. The paper proposes the following. Firstly a definition for the operational skills of reading and writing, for which Papert's term letteracy is used. Secondly a corresponding definition for the operational skills required to use a computer, for which the new term comperacy is proposed. Both these terms represent a continuum of skill levels and a classification for these levels is also developed. The paper concludes with an examination of the interdependencies between letteracy and comperacy which can serve as the first step in a broader analysis of the relationship between literacy and computer literacy.

Abstract: For students and business persons alike, exposure to computers is nearly unavoidable (Larson & Smith, 1994). According to the U.S. Bureau of Census in 1989, seventy-five million Americans reported using a computer in some way, up considerably from the 47 million reported in 1984 (U.S. Department of Labor 1992-93). According to Griffin (1989), three of every four people in the U.S. workforce will be required to use the computer to handle new technology by year 2000. Computers play a key role in business, and the question of what constitutes computer literacy is more crucial than ever. At the same time, the rapid pace of technological advances in the computer industry has forced businesses to reorganize, to acquire the latest systems, and demand a computer-literate workforce (Porter & Miller, 1985). Computer literacy has been defined as "an understanding of computer characteristics, capabilities, and applications, as well as an ability to implement this knowledge in the skillful, productive use of computer applications suitable to individual roles in society" (Simonson, Mauere, Montag-Toradi, & Whitaker, 1987, p. 233). To use computers in applied settings, students need to master at least some level of computing literacy. Unfortunately, some students may possess a degree of computer anxiety (Maurer & Simonson, 1984) which could inhibit their attainment of computing literacy. Indeed, a student's perception of computers seems to be related to their willingness to attain computing literacy. Specifically, studies have suggested that computer experience is positively related to attitudes and interest in computers (Arnez & Lee, 1990; Chen, 1986; Loyd & Loyd, 1988). Furthermore, a number of studies have investigated the impact of demographic variables on gender, age, and computer experience. Regarding gender, a number of studies have investigated the relationship between gender and computer attitudes, and generally have reported that males have more positive attitudes toward computers (Anderson, 1987; Nickell & Pinto, 1986). The relationship between gender and computer attitudes is viewed by many as important since it has been proposed that failure to acquire computer literacy may become a barrier to women's advancement in certain careers (Miura & Hess, 1983). In regard to age, Anderson (1987) reported a significant relationship between the age of college students and computer attitudes. Finally, it has been demonstrated that computer experience may have a moderating effect on computer attitudes. Specifically, both Anderson (1987) and Arndt, Clevenger & Meiskey (1985) in their studies of college students showed a significant correlation between computer experience and weekly computer usage. Further, Siann and Durnell (1988) found that gender difference in computer literacy seemed to diminish with increased computer experience. Finally, Omar (1992) found a significant correlation between college students' computer experience and their attitudes toward computers. Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate college students' computer literacy levels and their attitudes toward computers based on specific demographic variables such as gender, age, computer experience, overall knowledge of computers, computer ownership, and weekly computer usage. Additionally, this research will replicate and extend the work of Kay (1993) who operationalized computing literacy according to reviews of the literature and current trends in computing technology. Method Subjects The subjects for this study were 316 undergraduate college students (172 males and 144 females) enrolled in business courses at a large midwestern university. Of the 316 subjects, 83% (n=261) were classifieded as traditional students (age [less than] 23) and 17% (n=55) were classified as traditional students (age [greater than]23). All participants voluntarily participated in this study and were assured that their responses would be anonymous and confidential. …

Abstract: A number of empirical studies on the use of computers reveals gender-related differences, with women and girls showing more negative feelings toward modern computer technology. Within the scope of an evaluation study of the pilot project “CULAS” (Computer Assisted Learning in Secondary Schools in Rhineland-Palatinate) the data of over 1000 students from grades 5 to 10 were analyzed with special focus on gender-related differences. The results of this study provide information on the following aspects: frequency and duration of computer use, computer experiences, computer interests, attitudes toward computers, emotional responses while working with computers, and locus of control. On a whole the results support the assumption of gender-related differences in exposure to and use of computers. However, these findings also indicate that this assumption may not hold true in a general sense, and that future studies must examine gender-related differences with more sophisticated methods.

Abstract: Ambulatory care is assuming an increasing role in health-care delivery. Yet, most health-care information systems were developed for the acute-care setting. To address the needs of ambulatory care, developers need a comprehensive understanding of the information-related activities of clinicians in heterogeneous outpatient practices. We studied the information activities of clinicians in seven diverse (primary-care, specialty-care, faculty, and independent private practices) ambulatory care sites. The results of our study allow us to characterize clinicians' information-related activities, their perceived information needs, and their satisfaction with computer resources. Developers of health-care information systems can use the results to design applications for clinicians in ambulatory care.

Abstract: The goal of an information-literacy program is to develop student skills in locating, evaluating, and applying information for use in critical thinking and problem solving. This paper describes a multidimensional evaluation process for determining nursing students' growth in cognitive and affective domains. Results indicate improvement in student skills as a result of a nursing information-literacy program. Multidimensional evaluation produces a well-rounded picture of student progress based on formal measurement as well as informal feedback. Developing new educational programs can be a time-consuming challenge. It is important, when expending so much effort, to ensure that the goals of the new program are achieved and benefits to students demonstrated. A multidimensional approach to evaluation can help to accomplish those ends. In 1988, The University of Northern Colorado School of Nursing began working with a librarian to integrate an information-literacy component, entitled Pathways to Information Literacy, into the curriculum. This article describes the program and discusses how a multidimensional evaluation process was used to assess program effectiveness. The evaluation process not only helped to measure the effectiveness of the program but also allowed the instructors to use several different approaches to evaluation.

Abstract: or many children today, their first interaction with technology is at home playing video games. The number of hours spent in front of these screens must be in the order of hundreds of billions. While many researchers, parents, and educators have good reason to be concerned about the quantity of time spent in this manner, they tend to overlook that even so-called educational software often does not function as any more than enhanced page-turning devices displaying information to be learned and monitoring students' progress. There are currently few opportunities for children to go beyond button-pushing and mouse-clicking in their interaction with technology. By asking children to program software for other children, we are turning the tables and placing children in the active role of constructing their own pro-grams—and constructing new relationships with knowledge in the process. The most obvious benefit is that children learn about technology by building things of significance, such as game software. A far more promising aspect is that learning programming and learning about technology is not only good for its own sake but also good because it is supportive of other types of learning. As I will explain in more detail, the very process of programming game software to teach fractions (or any other subject topic, for that matter) to younger users allows children to engage in significant mathematical thinking and learning. But most importantly, through programming , children learn to express themselves in the technological domain. In the world of educational programming, these last two aspects of learning with technology have received far less attention than the traditional benefits of technological knowledge. A software design project starts with a simple instruction: \" Design a computer game that teaches something about fractions to younger students. \" Everything else is left open. A class of students transforms their classroom into a game design studio for six months. During that period, they are: Students meet every day for one hour to write in their notebooks about their ideas, plans, and designs. They also discuss issues related to programming, games, teaching, and fractions. They give presentations to each other and meet once a month with their prospective users. All the students create a fully finished product—a computer game—with its documentation , advertising, and packaging. Since 1991, several software design projects with a focus on various mathematical or science topics have been conducted successfully with students ages 8 to 11 …

Abstract: This paper presents a snapshot of the IT skills of staff and Year 8 students in a secondary school prior to their receiving personal palmtop computers and after a short acquaintance with them. Previously, most staff made relatively little use of the knowledge they had of ‘content-free’ computer applications in their school work, whereas students had little knowledge of such applications. Access to the palmtop, however, increased the staff's use of such applications in their work, particularly for administration (e.g. class registers and assessment scores). A minority of staff remained unconvinced about the potential of the computer and many were dissatisfied with the amount and quality of INSET in the use of the palmtop and in IT in general. The students learned about the main content-free applications relatively quickly and used them frequently. The report highlights the need for adequate and careful training so that teachers become aware of the range of uses and possible benefits of IT.

Abstract: Computer use and training may be of special benefit to people with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) because computer technology may help lessen the impact of mobility limitations that are inherent with this disability. This article summarizes several findings from a 1994 survey conducted of New Jersey residents who suffered SCIs within the previous 10 years. The results indicate that, among people with SCIs, 46% currently use a computer in some capacity and 22% received computer training since the date of their injury. Perhaps surprisingly, both corresponding percentages are higher in the general population. People with SCIs appear to have less access to computers because most people learn how to use computers at work, and only a minority of people with SCIs work. The lower rate of use of computers among people with SCIs is unfortunate because the steep employment and earnings declines often experienced after an SCI are partially mitigated for those who have computer skills. The results suggest the importance of policies and programs aimed at increasing access to computers and computer training for people with severe disabilities.

Abstract: Information technology has come to occupy a central place in higher education. Claims for increased faculty productivity and improved teaching and learning through information technology can be widely found. However, too often these claims contain faulty assumptions or are not backed with sound empirical evidence. While it is evident that there are reasons to be optimistic that increased use of educational technology may bring about gains in productivity and improvements in pedagogy, there are also grounds for concern. So with the emergence of this technology comes the need to reexamine our traditional conception of computer literacy as well as to extend our approaches to critical thinking instruction so that questions about technology are included. This article will consider a theoretical framework for understanding the impact of the computer, and as such recognize the computer as cultural artifact: a tool that both amplifies and reduces aspects of human experience. Using this framework, two cases will b...

Abstract: This paper focuses on the role of self-evaluation during self-regulated learning. After a discussion of the social cognitive theory of self-regulation, self-efficacy, and achievement goals, two studies of fourth graders. who were learning fraction skills and one ongoing research project with college students enrolled in their first computer class are described. The ongoing research with the college students, elementary education majors, represents a follow-up to the prior research in elementary students' learning of mathematics skills in that it also looks at goals and self-evaluation in the context of self-regulatory learning. Findings reveal that: (1) learning goals are important for self-regulation; (2) self-evaluation is important when it is frequent or conveys information that students may not acquire on their own; and (3) the combination of learning goals and self-evaluation is powerful when self-evaluation is linked directly to the goals and when other factors may preclude self-evaluation. Further research directions in this area are suggested as well as implications for teaching and learning. (Contains 20 references.) (ND) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ***********************************************************************

Abstract: Leon Festinger originally introduced the concept of "cognitive dissonance" in 1957. Basically, this term refers to when individuals take a position on some issue, be it through what they say or what they do. Either way, a personal commitment is made, and that commitment is thought to shape these individuals' future attitudes and/or actions regarding the issue or thing in question. Well, where computers are concerned, what actions can occur that can demonstrate individuals' endorsement of them and/or favorable position toward them? Some things that seem to fit into this domain are (1) voluntary choice to use them, and/or (2) ownership of them. With these potential indicants of cognitive dissonance in mind, the present study will seek to determine if those individuals who voluntarily use computers demonstrate more favorable attitudes toward computers than their nonvoluntary counterparts, and/or if those individuals who own or have owned a computer demonstrate more favorable attitudes than their non-owner counterparts. Besides these cognitive dissonance-related factors, students' attitudes toward computers will also be examined as a function of their gender and/or age. Method A total of 164 undergraduate students (i.e., 71 females and 93 males), enrolled in a computer literacy class at a large Midwestern university, voluntarily participated in the present study. These students completed the Computer Attitude Scale (CAS; developed by Loyd and Gessard, 1984). This scale consists of 30 items that are intended to assess the respondents' attitudes toward computers and computer usage. The CAS contains three subscales (i.e., the "anxiety," "confidence," and "liking" subscales). The Likert-type alternatives for each item ranged from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." In addition to these subscale scores, students were also surveyed regarding the number of hours per week that they voluntarily use a computer, whether or not they own or have owned a computer, their gender, and their age. Results A series of analyses of covariance were used to examine the data. Each analysis considered a different subscale as the dependent variable, while all of the analyses considered all the independent variables, i.e., hours per week of voluntary use, whether or not they own or have owned a computer, their gender, and their age. Computer Anxiety While age (F[1/127] = 0.04, p [greater than] 0.05) and gender (F[1/127] = 3.64, p [greater than] 0.05) were not found to have any significant effect, the main effects of voluntary use (F[1/127] = 8.52, p [less than] 0.005) and ownership (F[1/127] = 9.48, p [less than] 0.005) were highly significant. Thus, those who had voluntarily used a computer were significantly less likely to experience computer anxiety than those who had not voluntarily used a computer, and those who owned or had owned a computer were also less likely to experience anxiety than those who had not owned a computer. …