Abstract: This article explores new paradigms for the use of computers in learning. Two concepts crucial to the development of qualitatively new kinds of computer-based learning environments are identified: the importance of focusing on the underlying process rather than just the product of a creative effort; and the importance of the computer's ability to record, represent and communicate that underlying process. We discuss the cognitive, pedagogical, and sociological issues relevant to the creation of learning environments in five domains, along with examples of specific possibilities in each: 1) Empowering environments. How can we design computer-based tools that both promote creativity and aid the development of artistic discipline? 2) Games. How can the motivational aspects of arcade-style games be transferred to more fertile learning environments? 3) Communication. How can we break away from the fundamentally linear structuring of ideas necessary in print-based communication and create tools to aid the repres...

Abstract: This book contains the proceedings of the first conference of the British Computer Society Specialist Group on Human-Computer Interaction, held at the University of East Anglia. Leading designers and researchers from industry and academia have contributed papers to these proceedings including many from collaborative groups brought together within the ALVEY and ESPRIT research programmes. The book represents a comprehensive publication of activities in the many areas of Human-Computer Inter

Abstract: This work takes a critical look at the use of the computer in education. In what ways and to whom is the use of the computer in education beneficial or harmful? Does the demand for universal "computer literacy" represent a respomse to a real need or to an illusion? What are the pedagogical, psychological and social effects of the computer in education? These are some of the questions that this book seeks to address.

Abstract: Haring and Beyard-Tyler (1984) have in computer labs" (p. 27). They pre recendy summarized major factors that sented figures that demonstrate a "con influence women to resist occupations sistent and substantial male dominance typically associated with men. They citof enrollment" in elective courses in ed sex role socialization, poor self-efsecondary school computer science in ficacy, and negative attitudes held by California and New Jersey, women and their peers as primary conLockheed (cited in Sanders, 1984), tributors to this resistance and sugof the Educational Testing Service, in gested intervention activities for seca study of Princeton High School stu ondary school counselors that would dents, found that 60% of the boys had encourage female students to explore used the school's computers voluntar and select nontraditional careers. ily (before, during, and after school) Mathematics is mentioned as a partiebut only 8% of the girls made use of ular area of concern. Recently, howthe same opportunities. In another ever, computer skills and training have survey, Lockheed and Frakt (1984) become important to many attractive noted that of 400 students enrolled in career options. Many of the observaa required introductory computer sci tions concerning sex-related difference class, nearly one-half of the boys, enees in attitudes and involvement that but virtually none of the girls, used the have been made with respect to mathcomputer center outside required class ematics and science are now being made time. Fisher (1983), reporting from with respect to secondary students and Berkeley, California, stated that computers. At any given school, a lower percentage of An increasing number of sets of forgiris than of boys will use computers. Girls mal and informal data document a dishave less access to computers than boys, they proportionately low involvement of are less likely to choose to use computers, secondary level women, as compared and they seem to lose interest in access to with men, in any voluntary work with computers, (p. 69) computers, both in and out of school. The Stanford Educator, the newsletter For example, Bakon, Neilson, and Gf the Stanford School of Education, McKenzie (1983) reported "growing headlined a recent article "Growing evidence that the long-documented gap

Abstract: This review examines empirical evidence on the relationship between computer use and achievement in elementary aged mildly handicapped students. The studies reviewed consider the effectiveness of the computer as a supplement to, or as a replacement for, traditional instruction. Evidence indicates that the computer effectively augments teacher instruction, but that its effectiveness as a teacher substitute is less evident. The conclusion is that a new research paradigm is needed that focuses on the interaction between the characteristics of the computer and the nature of the environment, both around the computer itself and within the school.

Abstract: Microprocessors already impinge daily on the lives of most Australians. They control an ever increasing range of both products and services, from our watches and calculators to our routine banking transactions. More and more they are becoming so important both directly and indirectly, in our lives that we cannot help but become aware as they rampage through the later part of the 20th century with their far-reaching social and economics implications. It is the responsibility of all educators and policy makers to prepare students with a sound body of skills and understanding of computers and computer literacy in order that they will be able to fit into an increasingly technological workforce.

Abstract: This study presents a validation procedure for Computer Literacy Examination: Cognitive Aspect (CLECA). Thirty-nine multiple-choice questions were written to test students' general knowledge about computers. Ninety-five high school students were selected as the sample for this study. Students were given CLECA twice during the 1983 Fall semester. A total of 95 responses were included in the item analysis. Seven items not meeting the selection criteria were removed from the test. The mean score was 15.59 on the 32-item test, standard deviation of 6.80, and internal consistency reliablity value of .87. The test-retest reliability of .90 was obtained based on 67 pairs of scores. CLECA has now reached the operational stage and appears to be useful for assessing high school students' cognitive knowledge about computers.

Abstract: Education majors were found to have less favorable attitudes about computers than business majors, even when key individual differences were taken into account. Implications for teacher education suggest that direct experience with computer applications should be available throughout the curriculum.

Abstract: Two hundred forty teachers participated in a study on the development of computer literacy conducted in computer education classes at Arizona State University from the summer of 1980 through the fall of 1982. The results revealed a positive correlation of r = +0.72 between the average attitudes toward computers and the average level of computer knowledge of the teachers surveyed. The teachers also indicated an appreciation for the value of computers in the classroom and expressed interest in expanding their computer knowledge.

Abstract: Much has been written about the concept of computer literacy for today's K-12 students. Plans for school curricula to meet these goals via sets of instructional objectives are being implemented across the country. Methods for assessing student mastery of these objectives is a need following on the heels of curriculum implementation. This article contains the background for development of a comprehensive computer literacy assessment battery for use in a K-12 curriculum. Empirical data from extensive field-testing in two distinct student populations at grades 4, 7 and 11 are presented, along with correlational analysis which assists in the interpreation of the results.

Abstract: A definition of computing literacy is a necessary prerequisite to any computing literacy effort. The definition that will be presented here represents the authors' interpretation of the term. It is the result of research and experiences accumulated over six years while preparing and promoting a computing literacy program for a liberal arts environment. Computing literacy will be viewed in terms of competencies and will address both cognitive and affective goals. Four levels of computing literacy will be defined: computing awareness; computing literacy; computing fluency; and computing expertise. The transition from level to level and from broad goals to specific objectives will be made by identifying the knowledge and skills required for each level.

Abstract: Two descriptive pilot studies employed a multi-group and preand post-design to analyze the relationship between students' exposure to computers and reductions in their computer anxiety scores and the relationship between the amount of computer exposure to computer anxiety scores. In the first study, standardized measures of computer anxiety and computer knowledge were administered to 21 graduate students in instructional technology and 22 graduate students in education; the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was also administered to both groups to assess the relationship of personality type with computer anxiety and gain in computer knowledge. Results indicated that the group with continuous exposure to computers showed greater reduction of anxiety scores and higher than predicted scores on a standard measure of computer literacy. The second study measured 127 undergraduates who had little or no previous computer science coursework, all of whom were enrolled in a fundamental computing course (47% males and 53% females). The only measure administered to this group was the Computer Anxiety Index (CAIN). No significant relationships were found between gender and computer anxiety, although the results did lend support to the proposition that there is a significant relationship between computer anxiety and computer experiences/exposure. An 18-item bibliography is included. (DJR)

Abstract: Pre‐school professionals need to be able to assess the role of microcomputers in education. Young children are able to interact with a microcomputer through a keyboard or other input devices and show by their interest and attention that they enjoy using one. There is some software of the Computer‐Assisted‐Learning type suitable for this age group, but in many cases, these programs do not use the potential of the computer as effectively as they could. Observations of children under 5 years using the LOGO language with simplified graphics commands shows that this provides opportunities for cognitive development, stimulating problem solving and experimentation. Creativity and social and language skills are also likely to be promoted. Microcomputers can be useful for administration as well as providing valuable educational experiences in pre‐school settings.

Abstract: While the notion of Computer Literacy is receiving much attention in today's schools, curricular approaches are in their infancy, and validated assessment methods are virtually nonexistent. This article reports on three years of test development and validation research in Computer Literacy conducted by the author. Empirical data collected in testing over 3,000 students in 115 schools are presented which evidence the psychometric properties of the instruments and address questions of interrelationships among student and classroom characteristics with achievement.

Abstract: The microcomputer can be an effective instructional tool only if educators revise their views. They need to learn that the computer has a great potential for enhancing learning. But they must also understand that much of the existing software on the market today is limited in its scope and versatility for meeting individual needs and accommodating different learning styles. This current problem—computer potential vs. limited software—provides support for the critics of such technology who view the computer as a short-lived, expensive fad. In the field of special education, computers can assist with individualized instruction and can help manage the vast amount of record keeping an individualized program requires. But instructional applications, in many cases, are limited by the software. For computer instruction to be truly effective in all academic settings, educators must become advocates of this innovative instructional tool by supporting computer literacy programs and becoming consultants for research...

Abstract: This paper sets forth recommendations for the topics and organization of preservice and inservice teacher training activities based on a review of the literature on staff development for computer-based instruction, and on the opinions gathered from 60 microcomputer-using teachers who were nominated as “successful” users of microcomputers in mathematics and science instruction. Teacher-taught, individualized, multi-session workshops, with “hands-on” practice, follow-up, and incentives for participation constitute important organizational features. Core topics for staff development include microcomputer operation, computer programming, computer literacy, selection and evaluation of courseware, and integration of computers with instruction.

Abstract: One hundred sixty-three microcomputer courseware programs were evaluated by the Educational Products Information Exchange (EPIE) Institute to identify both strengths and weaknesses in instructional and technical design. Included were programs in the arts, business education, computer languages, computer literacy, early childhood, language arts, logic/problems solving, mathematics, reading, science and social studies. Courseware types included drill and practice, educational game, tutorial and simulation. Findings indicate weaknesses in several areas. There was an overwhelming lack of field testing evidence in the course of program development. Many programs had no support materials, unclear or developmentally inappropriate learner objectives, and few instructional suggestions or information to aid in curricular integration. Most programs failed to use an approach which lent itself to an effective delivery. There was little evaluation of student learning and few programs included a management syste...